CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Design and construction of dams is a life long process that is exacting as well as
rewarding in the long term. Dams are such structures that lead to a complete change of
the life style of the people within its sphere of influence. Dams combine a strong visual
impression together with the obvious various benefits that come with improved full
utilisation of water resources. Dams are big investments whose design and construction
requires professional skills and integrity. Because of its significance to its immediate
environs it is imperative that before any detailed design and investigations are carried out
a feasibility study should be done to check the economic viability of such a project as
well as environmental and social impacts.

1
 CHAPTER 2

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1.0 REASONS FOR DAM CONSTRUCTION

Dams are constructed for various purposes, which include
i) Flood control
ii) Conservation
There is need for dam construction in the regions where stream flow either ceases or is
reduced to extremely low values during parts of the year. Conservation may be done for
any one or more of the following purposes;
a) Domestic and municipal purposes
b) Irrigation
c) Industrial use
d) Stock water
e) Power development
f) Recreation

2.2.0 TYPES OF DAMS

Dams may be classified into a number of different categories depending upon the purpose
of the construction

2.2.1 Classification According To Use

 Storage dams
 Diversion dams
 Detention dams

2.2.2 Classification According To Hydraulic Design

 Overflow dams
 Non-overflow dams

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2.2.3 Classification According To Materials Of Construction Used
 Earth fill dams
 Rock fill dams
 Concrete gravity dams
 Concrete arch dams
 Concrete buttress dams

2.3.0 FACTORS GOVERNING SELECTION OF TYPE OF DAM

The selection of the best type of dam for a particular site calls for thorough consideration
of the characteristics of each type, as related to the physical features of the site and the
adaptation to the purposes the dam is supposed to serve as well as economy, safety and
other pertinent limitations

2.3.1 Physical Factors-In The River Basin And At Site

a) Topography
b) geology-geological formations
-Geological features
c) Materials available - natural construction materials and their properties
- Foundation capabilities
- Water tightness
d) Hydraulic conditions –river stages
- Regimes
- Sediment transport
- River morphology

2.3.2 Biological Factors

a) Flora; vegetation-aquatic and terrestial
b) Fauna; aquatic and terrestial
c) Ecosystems
d) Water quality

3
2.3.3 Socio-economic Factors
a) Populations, demographic distribution, resettlements
b) Economic activities, natural resources and potentials, infrastructure, relocation costs

2.3.4 Technical and Technological Factors

a) Availability of experience, construction materials, machinery, specific infrastructure,
labour

2.3.5 Political Factors

Political goals, mechanisms, reperesentations, interest of society involved.

2.4.0 RESERVOIRS
They are classified according to the purpose they serve as follows

a) Flood Control Reservoirs

Stores water during floods and release it gradually at a safe rate when the flood recedes.
Help to control surface erosion and destruction due to floods.

b) Distribution Reservoirs
Primarily used to store water for domestic and commercial purposes

c) Multi Purpose Reservoirs

They serve more than one purpose e.g. irrigation, flood control, hydropower generation
e.t.c

4
2.4.1 Reservoir Storage Zones
 Live storage
The storage between the full reservoir level and the dead storage (outlet level) is the
useful storage.

 Dead storage
This is the water stored below the outlet level, which is not used for any purpose
under normal circumstances. This storage is usually taken to be equal to the sediment
volume to be deposited during the life span of the reservoir

 Surcharge storage
The water in the reservoir between the normal reservoir elevation and the flood
level.it is the water that should be spilled to the downstream channel.this is required
fir evaluating the routed flood capacity.

2.4.2 Flood Routing

 This is a process that shows how a flood can be reduced in magnitude and lengthened
in time (attenuated) by the use of storage in the reach between two points.it refers to
the operation of computing the probable effect which the reservoir will have on the
hydrograph of the natural flood.the relationship governing the computation is that
over any time interval, the volume of inflow must equal the volume of out flow plus
the change in storage during that period the process can be expressed as

ds/dt=It-Qt

Where s=storage
Q= outflow inflow
T= time

5
 If the reservoir is rising there will be an increase in storage and change in storage will
be positive, if the reservoirs falling, there will be a decrease in storage and the change
in storage will be negative.
 During flooding the differences between the inflow and the outflow is noted.this is
used to determine the maximum discharge (outflow) from a reservoir.this is used for
spillway design.

2.4.3 The Routing Period

The routing period must be sufficiently short so that the inflow and outflow hydrographs
consist of straight lines which do not depart too far from actuality.if it is too long it is
possible to miss the peak the peak of the of the inflow curve, so the period should be
shorter than the travel time of the flood wave through the reach. The shorter the routing
period the greater the amount of computations to be done hence the routing period should
be reasonably short.

2.4.4 Freeboard
This is the vertical distance between the top of the dam and the full supply level in the
reservoir; the top of the dam is the highest watertight level of the structure and could thus
be the top of the watertight perapet. The free board is made up of the following
components
 Wet freeboard
It is that rise in the elevation of the water surface above the full supply level, required
to enable the spillway to pass the designed outflow. For spillway cills, which are
high, enough to give a free discharge
Q=2.2LH3/2
Where Q = the outflow discharge inm3/s
L = the length of the spillway
2.2= The coefficient of discharge which depends on the type of spillway
roughness of the surface.
H = wet freeboard or depth of water over the spillway

6
 
Dry freeboard
This is a further freeboard added to allow for wave action and this should be a
minimum of 0.75m. The height of the waves generated by winds blowing over the
reservoir depends on the wind velocity and duration, the length of the open water
over which the wind travels (the fetch), the depth of water and the ratio of the
reservoir width to the fetch. As an average the wave height (trough to crest) can
be calculated from the formula

H=0.032 vf +0.76-0.27 4 f *slope factor

Where H= wave height in m

v = wind speed in km/h in the direction of the dam usually 55km/h
f = fetch in km
Slope factor = 1.24 (to cater for uprush on the slope)

2.4.5 Sedimentation in Rivers

The assessment of economic viability, safety and cultural considerations as well as
environmental and social impact assessment should form an integral part of any large
dam project. This assessment includes the estimation of the sediment deposition in a
reservoir and it’s life. Sediment runoff in many rivers is continuously increasing mainly
as a result of human influence. The loss of storage is one effect of sedimentation in the
reservoirs. Others are increased flood levels upstream of the reservoir, retrogression of
the riverbed and water levels downstream of the dam, elimination of nutrients carried by
the sediment and the effect on the reservoir water quality. The available solution though
not economical is providing dead storage to accommodate the deposits during the life of
the dam.

7
2.4.6 Factors Affecting Sedimentation
i) Extend of the catchment area and the variable nature of it’s different zones
ii) Amount of sediment load in the river
iii) Type of rainfall in each zone
iv) Monthly and annual runoff from catchment and subcatchment
v) Slope of each zone of catchment
vi) Vegetation in each zone of catchment
vii) Geological formations of each zone of catchment and estimated relative
weathering and erosion with due regard to climatic conditions
viii) Presence of upstream reservoirs and extend of trapping sediment therein
ix) Storage ratio of the reservoir, thus volume of water stored in the reservoir and it’s
proportion to the mean annual flow in the river (that is capacity inflow ratio) .It
has been established that reservoirs of small storage ratios, regardless of capacity,
will silt up far more readily than those of higher storage ratios. Therefore to avoid
major problems of sedimentation and greatly reduced useful life of dams it is not
advisable to build small dams on large catchments.

2.4.7 Preserving Reservoir Capacity

Reservoir capacity can be preserved by the following methods:
 Minimising sediment input into the reservoir
This is by far the most effective measure, and can be achieved by optimal choice of
the location of the reservoir, the prevention of soil erosion in the catchment, by soil
conservation methods (afforestration, terracing, screens on the tributaries upstream of
the reservoir) or by bypassing heavily sediment laden flows during floods, from an
upstream diversion structure to downstream of the dam.

 Maximising sediment through-flow

This requires flow regulation during floods and or flushing during a reservoir
drawdown. Under certain conditions the sediment laden inflow does not mix with the
water in the in the reservoir but moves along the old reservoir as a density current in

8
 the dam, where it can be drawn off by suitably located and operated outlets. In
principle the development of density current requires significant differences between
the density of the incoming flow and the water in the reservoir large reservoir depth
and favourable morphological conditions (steep, straight old riverbed).

 The recovery of storage

This can be achieved by flushing deposited sediments technique which is only
possible when combined with a substantial reservoir drawdown, by siphoning or
dredging; in the latter case either conventional methods, particularly a suction dredger
with a bucket wheel or special techniques (e.g. pneumatic or jet pumps) may be used.

2.4.8 Silt Load Concentrations

On the basis of available data catchments can be grouped into three categories with
corresponding values of mean sediment concentrations in Zimbabwe:
a) Basins with well developed conservation measures and moderate
topograhy=3000mg/l
b) Basins prone to erosion through poor conservation and steeper slopes 5000mg/l
c) Basins highly susceptible to erosion =10000mg/l

2.4.9 Reservoir Trap Efficiency

The proportion of the sediment entering the reservoir, which settles, is called the trap
efficiency and depends on the ratio of the reservoir capacity to the annual inflow volume.
The reservoir trap efficiency is a measure of the proportion of the total sediments that
enter a reservoir that is deposited. For a small reservoir it may be assumed that only the
bed load sediments (10% of the total load) is deposited, and the suspended load remains
in suspension until released over the spillway. In large reservoirs, (storage ratios1.0) all
incoming water is retained and therefore all the silt is deposited giving a trap efficiency
of 100%. The trap efficiency of a reservoir varies between 10% and 100%. For practical
purposes it is assumed that the trap efficiency reaches 100% when the storage ratio is 0.1
and varies linearly down to10% at zero storage.

9
2.4.10. The Yield of a Reservoir
The theory of reservoir yield is based on the application of the queuing theory to the
annual volumes of inflow to the reservoir. It is assumed that the distribution of annual
inflow is a random process that can be represented by a suitable probability distribution.
A computer programme was developed to simulate the queuing process and from the
results derived from the programme it has been possible to produce charts to estimate the
yield of a potential reservoir graphically.

2.4.11 Yield Curves

The yield curves used were produced based on the following assumptions:
 Annual Inflow
The variation of annual inflow from year to year can be represented by a Weibull
probability distribution. The parameters describing the distribution are
R =mean annual runoff (inflow)
Cv = coefficient of variation of annual runoff.

 Distribution Of Inflow During The Year

The annual inflow cycle follows the pattern of three months inflow at constant rate
followed by nine months with no inflow.

 Draw Off
The rate of draw off from the reservoir is assumed to be constant during the year. The
total volume of draw off each year is the yield Q of the dam at a particular probability
level. In this case the probability level was taken as 10%.

 Evaporation
The rate of evaporation is assumed to be constant during the year.

 Evaporation Factor (EF)

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 The yield curves were plotted for contours of MAR*EF.The yield curves were used
after adjusting the evaporation factor as follows

EF = 0.785/eA3*V2

Were A = full supply area *106 m2

V = full supply capacity*106m3
e = effective rate of evaporation m/year

2.4.12 Comment on the Yield Curves

From the yield curves it can be seen that dams on small catchments areas are very
inefficient compared with dams on large catchments. The optimum storage ratio V/R is
the storage ratio above which no significant increase in the yield, it is apparent that
storage ratio depends both on MAR and Cv.

2.5.0 SPILLWAYS
Spillways are provided to release surplus or flood water, which cannot be contained in
the allotted storage space. Many failures of dams have been caused by improperly
designed spillway or by spillway of insufficient capacity. In determining the best
combination of storage and spillway capacity to accommodate the selected inflow design
flood, all pertinent factors of hydrology, hydraulic design, cost and damage should be
considered there are several types of spillways and they are;
1) Shaft or bellmouth spillways (morning glory).
2) Side channel spillways
3) Chute spillways
4) Siphon spillways
5) Overflow spillways.

2.5.1 Factors Affecting Spillway Design

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i) Safety considerations consistent with the economy
ii) Hydrological and site conditions
iii) Purpose of dam and operating conditions
iv) Conditions downstream of the dam
v) Nature and amount of solid materials brought by the river e.g. floating debris,
sediment suspension etc. where too many debris are anticipated the shaft spillway
shall not be considered as a positive alternative.

2.5.2 Location of Spillway

A spillway can be located within the body of the dam or at one end of it or entirely away
from it independently in the saddle. Location will depend on the site of solid rock
outcrop, nature of gorge and type of dam.

2.5.3 Cavitation on Spillways

Whenever water flows in streamlines of sharp curvatures at high velocities, the inside
band would experience very low pressures compared with the outside band .The inside
zone will normally be at a suction pressure. If these suction pressures approach the water
vapour pressure, the water will boil or vaporise locally. The vapour bubbles will move
with the moving water stream into a region of low pressure where they are unstable and
will collapse.

It has been shown that the implosion of water rapidly inwards produces very high impact
or water hammer pressure and these pressures are sufficiently high enough to fatigue any
material. To avoid this phenomenon an ogee crest shape is adopted. If the underside of
the trajectory of the spillway water fits on the spillway exactly, the pressure on the
spillway face will be atmospheric and suction pressure is avoided.

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2.5.4 Energy Dissipation Structures Stilling Basin
 The hydraulic jump is the basic feature used to dissipate excess hydro-mechanical
energy. A hydraulic jump can occur under two different conditions these are
i) As a transition from supercritical to subcritical flow in a channel with a varied
location
ii) In a stilling basin with a fixed location.

 The stilling basin uses the hydraulic jump as the hydraulic element for dissipating
energy in a specific structure. The excess hydromechanical energy is converted
mainly to heat, spray and sound. The stilling basin is located between the outlet works
of a dam and the tail water, to where it should return excess flows safely. The stilling
basin is a structure in which a hydraulic jump is generated and which has been
designed economically in terms of length tail water level and scour.

 The selection of a stilling basin depends on the factors such as

i) Hydraulic approach conditions
ii) Tail water characteristics
iii) Scour potential and
iv) Personal preferences

 Baffles are provided to shorten the hydraulic jump without gaining additional tail
water level. Compared to a simple hydraulic jump basin, on which the approach
momentum is balanced by adequate tail water level, the stilling basin has in addition,
chute and baffle elements.

2.6.0 OUTLET WORKS

 Outlet works controls are designed to release water at specific rates, as indicated by
downstream requirements, floood control regulations, storage considerations or legal
requirements.

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 Outlet works also serve to discharge water back into the river downstream as
compensation water or a means of protecting dams to facilitate quick draw down
when the stability of the dam is threatened.
 In order to obtain full benefit of the storage, the intake level should be as low as
practicable, bearing in mind that allowance should be made for siltation. The size of
the outlet must be such that it can pass the normal requirements under minimum
reservoir conditions.
 When outlets are set in embankment, care must be taken to avoid
i) Damage of outlet pipe due to embankment settlement
ii) Seepage and consequent piping along the outlet.
 To curb the above, outlet pipes should always be found on firm fondation, avoid
embankment fill and it should be surrounded in concrete.

2.6.1 Outlet Parameters

a) Trash grid
Used at the intake of outlets to screen out debris. They also provide an improved
water seepage that reduces cavitation along the pipeline.
b) Piping
Flanged steel piping should be used for its inherent strength and to reduce seepage.
c) Corrosion protection
The pipes should have bitumen lining internally and should be encased in concrete to
avoid external abrasion. Pipe thickness should not be less than 8mm.

2.7.0 DAM FOUNDATION AND CUT OFF

Foundation investigations are necessary to ascertain whether a safe structure can be built
on a selected site. The cut off of a dam is the region below the general foundation level in
which a barrier to water seepage is constructed. It will be directly below the impervious
core. In zoned earth dams it will be central or towards the upstream toe.
Seepage through the dam should be avoided for two reasons;

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i) To prevent piping through foundations, saturation of fill materials or large uplift
pressures.
ii) To reduce water loss from reservoir.

Cut-off trenches can be classified as positive and non-positive

 A Positive Cut-off
Will be excavated to an impermeable layer, either rock or soils whose level of
permeability is about equal to the back fill material. If the cut-off invert is on rock, it
maybe excavated to about 2m of the upper rock to penetrate the more fractured layers.
The soft region needs to be excavated to the full width of the impervious core, zone of the
embankment, to avoid discontinuities in the seepage path. Side slopes of cut-off should
not be steeper than 1/1 to minimise differential settlements. The hard rock cut zone
should have a bottom width proportional to the head of water at any section, but not more
than 4m.The side slopes should ½ but the depth should not be greater than the bottom
width to avoid arching action or hang up of the core leading to a potential hydraulic
failure.

 Non positive cut-off

Used when foundation strata are comprised of a considerable depth of semi permeable
material and it is not economical to excavate such a deep positive cutoff. The total
underground seepage in deep strata can be more economically controlled by construction
of an upstream blanket of impermeable fill, thus lengthening the seepage path. The length
and depth of the blanket of impermeable fill depends on the water head at that section. At
the upstream toe of the blanket a trench should be excavated to a minimum of 2m.

2.7.1 Considerations in the Design of a Cut-off Trench

i) If back fill is impervious earth material, bottom width should not be less than 4m
to allow for plant access.
ii) The bottom width should be greater than the depth of the cut-off trench.
iii) A filter zone should be put on the downstream face of the cut-off trench.

15
iv) Cut off in hard excavation should be at least 2m deep to intersect surface fissures
in the foundation.
v) Side slopes should be 1/1 in soft excavations and1/2 in hard excavations.
vi) Open fractures on side cuts of hard cut-off trenches should be sealed with
concrete or masonry.
vii) If cut-off is in hard materials, which are heavily jointed or fractured, then it
should be grouted.

2.8.0 DAM EMBANKMENT

It is the super structure of the dam above the foundation. It has to fulfil two important
parameters;
i) Prevent seepage.
ii) Ensure stability.
In the zoned earth dam, the central core prevents seepage while the core material
provides stability.

2.8.1 Core
Core material is usually impermeable but fewer stables. To stabilise it, outer shells are
added which are more pervious but stable. Core is used to avoid or reduce water loss
through seepage.

2.8.2 Chimney drain

This is usually installed downstream of core, to assist in stability by reducing the pore
pressure in the downstream fill. It also prevents the phreatic line from day lighting on the
down stream face and it also provides security against piping of the core.

2.8.3 Downstream blanket drain

It drains seepage from the core or chimney drain and it also intercepts any subsurface
seepage. It is usually made form sand or crusher-run sandwich construction.

16
2.8.4 Rock fill toe
This provides protection of the downstream fill against degradation by tail water and
piping effects caused by seepage.

2.8.5 Upstream protection

The upstream slopes of earth fill dam must be protected against destructive wave action.
Usual types of surface protection for the upstream slope are rock riprap, either dry
dumped or hand placed. The upstream slope protection should extend from the crest of
the dam to a safe distance below the minimum water level.

2.8.6 Down stream protection

Downstream slopes of earth fill dam should be protected against erosion by wind and
rainfall runoff by grassing though riprap. The grasses chosen should be suitable for a
given locality.

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 CHAPTER 3
3.1.0 Preliminary Dam Sizing
From the basin survey done by the Zimbabwe National Water Authority (ZINWA) a
planimetric exercise was carried out to produce capacity and surface area curves attached
as fig 3.1. This shows the total capacity utilising the whole the valley full. From these
curves all other calculations had their bases including the next section on yield analysis.

3.2.0 Yield Analysis

It is the prerogative of a dam designer especially for irrigation purpose dam to utilise the
runoff as much as possible. At the same time it is equally important not to ‘wilt up’ the
downstream environment. This shows the necessity of a thorough hydrological analysis.
Yield of a dam refers to that amount of water that can be extracted at an instant and risk
level. Yield is mainly affected by mean annual runoff, evaporation and dam capacity.
This means for any capacity, corresponding to a specific area fig 3.1 (hence evaporation)
resulting from a particular inflow gives an expected yield. In Zimbabwe design is based
on 80% of the net yield to allow for downstream water use. The following assumptions
are made:
1) Water rights for upstream dams have been considered satisfied.
2) Downstream and upstream water rights do not exist.
3) Future developments in the upper catchment area have not been designed for.
4) No water for compensation purposes is to be allowed to flow out of the dam.

3.2.1 Parameters
Capacity, C: =gross mean annual runoff* storage ratio
Net yield, Q: =corresponding yield to capacity C
Net evaporation, e
Surface area, A: obtained from the capacity and surface are curves

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Gross mean annual runoff, R
Coefficient of variation, CV=80%
Evaporation factor, EF = [0.785/eA]*V

3.2.2 Calculations
Storage ratio = Capacity/mean annual runoff = C/R
Evaporation factor = EF (0.785/ea) 3 *V2
Q/R from yield curves

i) Storage ratio =0.3

C/R = 0.3 C= 0.482
EF = (0.785/1.9*0.095) 3*0.4822
=19.11
R*EF=19.11*1.608*106
=30729*103m3
Q/R =0.22
Q=0.354*106m3

ii) Storage ratio =0.5

C/R=0.5 C=0.804*106m3
EF = (0.785/1.9*0.135) 3*0.8042
=18.53
R*EF=18.53*1.608*106
=29796*103m3
Q/R=0.27
Q=0.434*106

iii) Storage ratio=0.6

C/R=0.6 C=0.965*106
EF = (0.785/1.9*0.155) 3*0.9652
=17.64
R*EF=17.64*1.608*106
=28365*103m3
Q/R=0.28
Q=0.450*106m3

iv) Storage ratio=0.8

C/R=0.8 C=1.286*106m3
EF = (0.785/1.9*0.200) 3*1.2862
=14.58
R*EF=14.58*1.608*106

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 =23445*103m3
Q/R=0.34
 Q=0.547*106m3

v) Storage ratio 1.0

C/R=1.0 C=1.608*106m3
EF =(0.785/1.9*0.239) 3*1.6082
=13.36
R*EF=13.36*1.608*106
=21483*103m3
Q/R=0.41
Q=0.659*106m3

vi) Stoa small treatment plant of the capacity less than 60m3/hr is being designed,
basing on the available rage ratio 1.1
C/R=1.1 C=1.769*106m3
EF = (0.785/1.9*0.256) 3*1.7692
=13.15
R*EF=13.15*1.608*106
=21145*103m3
Q/R=0.43
Q=0.691*106m3

vii) Storage ratio 1.2

C/R=1.2 C=1.930*106m3
EF = (0.785/1.9*0.272) 2*1.930 2
=13.15
R*EF=13.15*1.608*106
=20984*103m3
Q/R=0.43
Q=0.691*106m3

Table 3.1
Storage Capacity Surface area Q/R Q, Net yield
ratio *106 m3 *106 m2 *106m3
0.3 0.482 0.095 0.22 0.354
0.5 0.804 0.135 0.27 0.434
0.6 0.965 0.155 0.28 0.450
0.8 1.286 0.200 0.34 0.547
1.0 1.608 0.239 0.41 0.659
1.1 1.769 0.256 0.43 0.691
1.2 1.930 0.272 0.43 0.691

From the capacity yield curve fig 3.2(overleaf)

20
a) Live capacity =1.32*10
b) Yield at 10 % risk level =

Capacity Yield Curve

2.5

2
capacity *106 m3

1.5

0.5

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8

yield *106 (m3)

21
Full supply capacity
The full supply capacity = live capacity + dead storage +sediment volume

3.3.0 Sediment Volume

Assumptions
1) Density of sediment e = 1.55 tonnes/m3
2) Concentration of sediment = 5000mg/l
3) Trap efficiency =80%

Sediment deposit per year = MAR *concentration* trap efficiency

Sediment deposit

= 1.608*106+5000*10-6*0.8/1.55
= 4.015*103 m3

Sediment volume considered over a 30 year design life

= 4.15*103*30
= 0.1254*106 m3.

As a percentage of the live capacity the sediment volume

is 0.125/1.32*100 = 9.5%
Hence the sediment volume lies in the acceptable range such that it would not cause any
significant danger to the live load.

3.4.0 Dead Storage

This is the water below the outlet level. The capacity is found by considering the
sediment volume over the design life and also the level of the solid rock near the
embankment for the stability of the outlet. From the site survey and capacity surface area
curves, the dead storage was determined as: 150*103 m3

22
=0.15*106 m3.

3.5.0 Dam Size

Full supply capacity= live storage + sediment volume + dead storage
= (1.32+0.125+0.15)*106m3
=1.595*106 m3
=1.6*106 m3

Full supply area [from capacity surface area curves]

=2393.4*103 m2
=23.9 ha

Full supply level [from capacity surface area curves]

= 99.2m

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 CHAPTER 4

4.1.0 FLOOD ROUTING

Maximum probable =222m3/s
Return period = 2000 years
Return period factor= 0.742
Peak flood =mpf*return period factor
=222*0.724
=164.72m3/s =Ip

Mean intensity of precipitation =Q/A*6.87

=164.72/10.05 *6.87
=112.6mm/hr

Storm duration = t minutes

t= [2050 log (NR)-3000]/I –20
= [2050log (2000*160) –3000]/112.6 *20
=53.84 minutes
=0.897 hours

t= 1/10 tp =1/10*53.584

= 5.358 minutes
=321.48 seconds

4.2 .0 Inflow Outflow Hydrographs

Relating storage to head, h, above crest

24
Height Surface area Mean A dh ds Storage
above
crest
0 23.94 0 0.2 0 0
0.2 24.36 24.15 0.2 4.83 4.83
0.4 24.99 24.675 0.2 4.935 9.765
0.6 25.55 25.27 0.2 5.054 14.819
0.8 25.9 25.725 0.2 5.145 19.964
1 26.6 26.25 0.2 5.25 25.214
1.2 27.3 26.95 0.2 5.39 30.604
1.4 27.65 27.475 0.2 5.495 36.099
1.6 27.86 27.755 0.2 5.551 41.65
1.8 27.9 27.88 0.2 5.576 47.226
2 28.1 28 0.2 5.6 52.826

Relating outflow to head, h, above crest

Using Q=kLh3/2

For L=50 and K =1.8

Height Outflow, Q^3/s Storage*10^4m^3/s 2S/dt Q+2S/dt

above crest
0.000 0 0.000 0.000 0.000
0.200 8.050 4.830 300.463 308.513
0.400 22.768 9.765 607.457 630.226
0.600 41.828 14.819 921.855 963.683
0.800 64.399 19.964 1241.913 1306.312
1.000 90.000 25.214 1568.503 1658.503
1.200 118.308 30.604 1903.802 2022.110
1.400 149.085 36.099 2245.633 2394.718
1.600 182.147 41.650 2590.948 2773.095
1.800 217.346 47.226 2937.817 3155.163
1.200 118.308 52.826 3286.180 3404.488

25
 Q+2s/dt against Q for L=50m

250

200

150
Q m 3/s

100

50

0
0.E+00 5.E+02 1.E+03 2.E+03 2.E+03 3.E+03 3.E+03

Q+2s/dt

Relating outflow to inflow and change in storage

T/Tp Time I Inflow
Q/Qp hrs I Q+2s/dt Outflow
0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
0.100 0.015 5.358 2.471 2.471 -4.532
0.200 0.075 10.717 12.354 26.360 -3.168
0.300 0.160 16.075 26.355 71.405 -0.596
0.400 0.280 21.434 46.122 145.073 3.611
0.500 0.430 26.792 70.830 254.803 9.876
0.600 0.600 32.150 98.832 404.713 18.436
0.700 0.770 37.509 126.834 593.507 29.216
0.800 0.890 42.867 146.601 808.510 41.493
0.900 0.970 48.226 159.778 1031.904 54.249
1.000 1.000 53.584 164.720 1247.905 66.582
1.100 0.980 58.942 161.426 1440.886 77.601

26
 1.200 0.920 64.301 151.542 1598.651 86.610
1.300 0.840 69.659 138.365 1715.338 93.273
1.400 0.750 75.018 123.540 1790.698 97.576
1.500 0.660 80.376 108.715 1827.801 99.694
1.600 0.560 85.734 92.243 1829.371 99.784
1.800 0.420 96.451 69.182 1791.229 97.606
2.000 0.320 107.168 52.710 1717.909 93.420
2.200 0.240 117.885 39.533 1623.314 88.018
2.400 0.180 128.602 29.650 1516.460 81.917
2.600 0.130 139.318 21.414 1403.689 75.478
2.800 0.098 150.035 16.143 1290.290 69.002
3.000 0.075 160.752 12.354 1180.782 62.750
3.5 0.036 187.544 5.930 1073.567 56.628

For L=80 and K =1.8

Inflow -outflow hydrograph for L=50m

Height above Outflow, Storage*10^4m^ 2S/dt Q+2S/dt

180.00
crest Q^3/s 3/s
0.000
160.00 0 0.000 0.000 0.000
0.200
140.00 12.880 4.830 300.463 313.343
0.400 36.429 9.765 607.457 643.887
120.00
0.600 66.925 14.819 921.855 988.780
Q m^3/s

0.800
100.00 103.038 19.964 1241.913 1344.951
1.000
80.00
144.000 25.214 1568.503 1712.503
1.200 189.293 30.604 1903.802 2093.095
60.00
1.400 238.536 36.099 2245.633 2484.169
1.600
40.00 291.436 41.650 2590.948 2882.383
1.800 347.753 47.226 2937.817 3285.571
20.00
1.200 189.293 52.826 3286.180 3475.473
0.00
0.0 50.0 100.0 150.0 200.0
Time (hrs)

27
 Q+2S/dt vs against Q for L=80

400

350

300

250
Q (m^3/s)

200

150

100

50

0
0.0 500.0 1000.0 1500.0 2000.0 2500.0 3000.0
Q+2S/d ( m^3/s)

T/Tp Q/Qp Time hrs Inflow I m3/s Q+2s/dt Outflow Q

0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
0.100 0.015 5.358 2.471 2.471 -7.939
0.200 0.075 10.717 12.354 33.173 -5.209
0.300 0.160 16.075 26.355 82.301 -0.842
0.400 0.280 21.434 46.122 156.461 5.751
0.500 0.430 26.792 70.830 261.911 15.125
0.600 0.600 32.150 98.832 401.321 27.519
0.700 0.770 37.509 126.834 571.950 42.688
0.800 0.890 42.867 146.601 760.009 59.406
0.900 0.970 48.226 159.778 947.575 76.081
1.000 1.000 53.584 164.720 1119.912 91.402
1.100 0.980 58.942 161.426 1263.254 104.145
1.200 0.920 64.301 151.542 1367.932 113.451
1.300 0.840 69.659 138.365 1430.938 119.052
1.400 0.750 75.018 123.540 1454.739 121.168

28
 1.500 0.660 80.376 108.715 1444.658 120.272
1.600 0.560 85.734 92.243 1405.073 116.753
1.800 0.420 96.451 69.182 1332.993 110.345
2.000 0.320 107.168 52.710 1234.197 101.562
2.200 0.240 117.885 39.533 1123.317 91.704
2.400 0.180 128.602 29.650 1009.090 81.550
2.600 0.130 139.318 21.414 897.054 71.590
2.800 0.098 150.035 16.143 791.431 62.200
3.000 0.075 160.752 12.354 695.528 53.674
3.5 0.036 187.544 5.930 606.464 45.756

Inlow outflow hydrograph for L=80m

180.000

160.000

140.000

120.000
Q (m^3/s)

100.000

80.000

60.000

40.000

20.000

0.000
0.000 50.000 100.000 150.000 200.000

Time (hrs)

29
For L=100 and K =1.8

Height above crestOutflow, Q^3/sStorage*10^4m^3/s2S/dt Q+2S/dt

0.000 0 0.000 0.000 0.000
0.200 16.100 4.830 300.463 316.563
0.400 45.537 9.765 607.457 652.994
0.600 83.656 14.819 921.855 1005.511
0.800 128.798 19.964 1241.913 1370.711
1.000 180.000 25.214 1568.503 1748.503
1.200 236.616 30.604 1903.802 2140.418
1.400 298.170 36.099 2245.633 2543.803
1.600 364.294 41.650 2590.948 2955.242
1.800 434.692 47.226 2937.817 3372.509
1.200 236.616 52.826 3286.180 3522.796

Q+2S/dt against Q for L=100

500.0

450.0

400.0

350.0

300.0
Q (m^3/s)

250.0

200.0

150.0

100.0

50.0

0.0
0.00 500.00 1000.00 1500.00 2000.00 2500.00 3000.00
Q+2S/dt (m^3/s)

30
T/Tp Q/Qp Time hrs Inflow I m3/s Q+2s/dt Outflow Q
0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
5.358
0.100 0.015 2.471 2.471 -10.423
0.200 0.075 10.717 12.354 38.141 -6.535
0.300 0.160 16.075 26.355 89.919 -0.891
0.400 0.280 21.434 46.122 164.178 7.203
0.500 0.430 26.792 70.830 266.722 18.381
0.600 0.600 32.150 98.832 399.622 32.867
0.700 0.770 37.509 126.834 559.555 50.300
0.800 0.890 42.867 146.601 732.391 69.139
0.900 0.970 48.226 159.778 900.493 87.462
1.000 1.000 53.584 164.720 1050.068 103.765
1.100 0.980 58.942 161.426 1168.683 116.694
1.200 0.920 64.301 151.542 1248.262 125.369
1.300 0.840 69.659 138.365 1287.432 129.638
1.400 0.750 75.018 123.540 1290.061 129.925
1.500 0.660 80.376 108.715 1262.467 126.917
1.600 0.560 85.734 92.243 1209.591 121.153
1.800 0.420 96.451 69.182 1128.710 112.337
2.000 0.320 107.168 52.710 1025.928 101.134
2.200 0.240 117.885 39.533 915.903 89.141
2.400 0.180 128.602 29.650 806.802 77.249
2.600 0.130 139.318 21.414 703.367 65.975
2.800 0.098 150.035 16.143 608.973 55.686
3.000 0.075 160.752 12.354 526.097 46.653
3.5 0.036 187.544 5.930 451.076 38.475

31
 Inflow outflow hydrograph for L=100m

180.000

160.000

140.000

120.000
Q (m^3/s)

100.000

80.000

60.000

40.000

20.000

0.000
0.0 20.0 40.0 60.0 80.0 100.0 120.0 140.0 160.0 180.0 200.0
Time (hrs)

4.3.0 Calculation Of Optimum Spillway Length

4.3.1 cost analysis in choosing the optimum spillway length to use

From the graph (overleaf) the optimum spillway length to use is 40m.

32
 cost analysis

200
180
160
140
120
cost (m$)

100
80
60
40
20
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
spillway length (m)(

spillway cost embankment cost total cost

4.4 Wet Freeboard

The rise in elevation of the water surface, above full supply level, required enabling the
spillway to pass the designed outflow.
The optimum spillway length L = 40m
Q= outflow discharge = 92.5m3/s
From Q =kLH3/2
K= 1.8
Then 92.5 = 1.8*40*H3/2
1.285 = H3/2
H=1.182m
 Wet freeboard =1.182 m

High flood level = 99.2 +1.182 =100.382 m

33
4.5.0 Dry Freeboard
The high flood level is the maximum expected water level in case of the worst flood but
wind movements also generate waves, which hit the upstream face to a level above the
high flood level. Wind velocity and fetch affect this wave height.
In this case fetch = 1.1km
Wind velocity = 55km/h
Wave height H=0.032 vf +0.76-0.27 4 f *slope factor
Slope factor =1.24
 H=0.032*[5.5*1.1]0.5+0.76-.27[1.1]0.25*1.24
=0.98m
Allowing a total settlement of 0.6m
Total dry freeboard= 0.908+0.6 =1.508m

 Embankment crest level =99.2+1.508+1.182

=101.98m

34
 CHAPTER 5

5.0 Design Report

5.1 Hydrology
Munguza River
Hydrological zone - DM5
Catchment area - 10.05km2
Mean annual runoff - 197 000*103m3
Mean annual rainfall - 160mm
Coefficient of variation - 80%
Mean evaporation - 1900mm/year
Gross mean annual runoff for the Catchment =160*103*10.05*106
=1.608*106m3
=R

5.2.0 Floods
Maximum probable flood =222m3/s
Maximum probable =222m3/s
Return period = 2000 years
Return period factor= 0.742
Peak flood, Ip =164.72m3/s
Mean intensity of precipitation =112.6mm/hr
Time to peak inflow =0.897 hours

5.3.0 Capacity And Yield

Live capacity =1.32*106m 3
Full supply capacity = 1.60 *106m3
Dead storage =0.15*106m 3
Sediment volume =0.125*106 m3
10% yield =0.6*106m3

35
5.4.0 Main Dam
Full supply level =99.2 m
High flood level =100.38m
Spillway length = 40m
Embankment crest level =101.89m
River bed level =80m
Height of dam =21.89 m
Capacity of dam =1.32*106m3
Surface area at full supply level = 23.9 ha
Embankment crest length =196m
Dry freeboard =1.508m
Wet freeboard = 1.182m

5.5.0 Foundation And Cut-Off

It is expected that the foundation should be able to carry imposed loads due to the
construction of the dam and should be at a reasonable depth at an adequately impervious
formation into which the cut off trench can be keyed. In this case the depth is assumed to
be 4m.
A positive cut off beneath the central positive core was used. The cut off will be 4m deep
with side slopes 1:0.5 and 15 m long. A complete grouting programme is proposed. Cut
off to be back filled with impervious material.

5.6.0 Embankment
1) A zoned earth dam has been proposed. The dam will consist of a central clay core
of side slopes 1:1, with chimney drain and blanket sand filter. The core will be
supported by the semi-permeable and more stable side fills on the upstream and
downstream faces.
2) A rock toe in the river bed.
3) A 1:2.5 and 1.2 upstream and downstream slopes for slope stability.
4) A 225 mm riprap on the upstream face and grassing on the downstream slope.

36
5.6.1 Calculation Of Rip-Rap Thickness
Mass of rock M= 0.01H3
H= wet freeboard
 M = 0.01[1.182]3
=0.0165tonnes
=16.5 kg
Volume of rock V =M/
Where = specific gravity of rock
=2.6g/cm3

V=16.5/2.6*103
=0.006m3

but V=4/3r3
=0.006m3]

r = [0.006*3/4]1/3
r = 0.113m

 Diameter= 0.225mm
= 225m

 Recommended maximum riprap thickness is 225 mm.

5.7.0 Outlet design

The outlet should be able to
1) Discharge the yield at twice mean annual runoff when the reservoir is at 10% live
capacity.
2) Empty the dam within 90 days in case of an emergency when the stability of the
embankment becomes a cause for concern.

37
 3) Give a safe discharge with initial draw-down not more than 400mm/day.

Considering condition 1
Storage ratio = 2
From yield curves Q/MAR =0.37 Cv =80
Q = 0.6*106m3
Peak demand 2Q = 1.2*106m3
Qm3/s= 1.2*106/[365*24*3600]
=0.038*106m3/s
Velocity in the outlet pipe should not exceed 8m/s. Using v=1m/s to get approximate
value of pipe diameter;
q= Av =r2v
r = [q/ (v)] 1/2
= [0.038/ (*1)] 1/2
=0.1099 m
Diameter of outlet 2r = 0.220
=220mm
Try D= 250mm

Checking whether the diameter meets the required available head and frictional losses
adequacy
H =(kv2/2g) + longitudinal frictional losses
Where H is the static head

Determination of static head
Level of inlet of outlet pipe = 87.5m
Level of outlet of outlet pipe = 86.5m
Full supply level = 99.2m
Available head = 99.2-86.5 = 12.7m

38
 
Local pipeline losses
Losses due to pipe fittings such as trash screen, sharp pipe entry, gate valve, butterfly
valve and sharp exit
(kv2/2g) = (0.01+0.5+0.25+0.275+0.5) =v2/2g
=1.535v2/2g


Longitudinal losses
Losses along the pipe longitudinal length =4flv2/ [2gd]
f=0.01 for steel
= 4*0.01*80* v2/2g/[0.25]
=12.8 v2/2g


Total losses = [1.535+12.8] v2/2g
= 14.335 v2/2g

Using H= (kv2/2g) + longitudinal frictional losses

12.7=14.335 v2/2g
v2 =17.38
v = 4.16m/s

Now q = Av = *0252*4.16/4
= 0.204m3/s 0.038m3/s o.k.
 Head is high enough such that pumping will not be necessary.

5.6.2 Intake structure

An intake structure would consist of a submerged trash screen and a horizontal bypass
will be provided to act as temporary river diversion channel during construction and will
be finally sealed with a concrete plug on project completion.

39
5.6.3 Valve house
The designed 250mm diameter pipe will have to lead directly into a valve house
(drawing number 3- valve chamber cross section). In the valve house the pipe will be
fitted with butterfly and sleeve type valves in the upstream and downstream ends
respectively.

5.7.0 Spillway
A 40m long side channel spillway is to be used, located on the left bank of the river
5.6.4 Design Data
Design head = 1.1.82m
Maximum outflow discharge =92.5 m3/s
Spillway length =40m
Discharge coefficient = 1.8
Spillway crest level = 99.2 m

The shape of the trough is trapezoidal.

From v=axn [a and n are arbitrary constants]
A2/g [(n+1)/2n] x2n = A/2T
A= area of trough
T = bottom width of the trough

The velocity head, hv is related to n through the equation

[(n+1)/n]hv = A/2T
And to discharge through the equation
Q= A (2ghv) 1/2

After several iterations the design side channel is as shown overleaf

40
Side channel cross section
If d=3.5m
T = 3m
A =14.58m2
hv = 2.209m/s with n assumed to be 10
Then
Q= 14.58(2*9.81*2.209) 1/2
=95.99m3/s

41
The design Q = 92.5m3/s the spillway can safely discharge the design Q.
6.0 BILL OF QUANTITIES AND COST OF WATER
6.1 Bill Of Quantities

Item Description Quantity Unit Rate Amount $

1 Excavation
1.1 Stripping and
clearing
a) Dam foundation Ha 935176
b) Spillway site ha 333788

1.2 Soft
a) Cut off m3 296
b) Spillway m3 613
c) Outlet m3 613

1.3 Hard
a) Cut off m3 1855
b) Spillway m3 2591
c) Outlet m3 2591

2 Embankment
a) Fill m3 355
b) Core m3 288
c) Rock fill m3 474
d) Rip-rap m3 2183
e) Coarse filter m3 5104
f) Fine filter m3 1166

3 Concrete
a) Spillway m3 11224
b) Outlet m3 118865

4 Steel work
a) Butterfly valve 1 28000 28000.00
b) Crate valve 1 26700 26700.00

5 Pipes
Q250mm 196 m 2345 459620

Totals

6 Miscellaneous 10 %

42
7 General & 10 %
preliminary
8 contingencies 15 %
9 Escalation during %
construction

Contract price

Departmental
10 Access road sum
11 Permanent building sum
12 Temporary building sum
13 Land compensation sum
14 Departmental sum
expenses

PROJECT COST

6.2 Cost of Water

Total project cost =TPC
Amount repayment @ 10% over 30 years = AP
Present value of expenditure factor for interest rate, r of 9% after 30 years
= [1+r]n-1/[r(1+r)n]
= [1.0930-1]/[0.09(1.09)30]
=10.27
Capital cost = TPC
Operation and maintenance
Dam earthworks (1% over 30 years) =TPC*10.27 =D
Steel pipe (1 % over 20 years) = 1% TPC*6.84= S

Cost of water /m3, X: TPC+S+D = yield per year*factor*X=A

43
Yield at 10% risk= 0.6*106m3

X = A/[0.6*106*10.27]
=cost of water per m3
Therefore the cost of water will be $X/m3.

7.0 CONCLUSION
Muonwe dam is expected to have a full supply capacity of 1.60*106m3 and a maximum
height of 21.89m. From riverbed level. The cost of water calculation basis is not in any
way deviant from current trends. The dam will have a great positive impact on the local
people from the construction itself, which will create employment for the local people.
Local people will also have an opportunity to start some lucrative irrigation projects that
will indeed transform their lives largely. Irrigation in the local farms will also be boosted.
Nearby schools will enjoy this development. It is however important to note that there is
an expected cost of relocation of some of the villagers who may happen to inhabit part of
the reservoir.

44
 CHAPTER 8

8.0 RECOMMENDATIONS

Before construction of this dam should commence it is necessary to make at least
one site visit to ensure the validity of some of the design assumptions made in this
project, since a site visit was not possible before and during the design. This
project is useful at least as a preliminary design.

It is also important in the way of an effective design to have a geological survey
of the area carried out so as to ensure the foundation depths, depth of rock and
rock competence since that wasn’t possible during design

When the geological survey is available, it is recommended to consider other
types of spillways such as the drop inlet that is gaining popularity in Zimbabwe as
an economical solution to the design problem at many sites since it is especially

45
 advantageous on small catchments (less than 30km2) since in this case Catchment
area is 1.0.05km2

Instrumentation and surveillance need to be considered also

LIST OF REFERENCES
1) A Guide To Construction Of Medium Sized Earth Dams In Zimbabwe
2) Engineer T.C. Kabell. An Assessment Of Surface Water Resources In
Zimbabwe
3) Engineer A.Muyambo. Design, Construction And Maintenance Of Small
Dams
4) CE406: Hydraulic structures lecture notes
5) Project On Dam Design By Paul Vengai .

46
APPENDIX 1

47
48