CHAPTER-1

Fracture/Yield line theory of slabs

Introduction
Slab can be classified based on

 Support condition
 Geometry and arrangement
 Loading condition
Before the development of ultimate load analysis, designed using elastic

plate theory(doesn’t give indication of ultimate load carrying capacity)
Further analysis had to be carried out

Alternatively, designer would use standard tables were presented in

code of practice (restricted to rectangular slabs)
For non rectangular and slab with opening these tables cannot be used

More complex cases as a result of shape, support conditions,

concentrated load, the presence of openings, etc. adopting ultimate
analysis method
The two principal approaches are

 yield line method (complex shape or concentrated loading)
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  Strip method (valuable where the slab contains openings)
 Plastic hinge was introduce in reinforced concrete in a continuous beam or frame upon
over loading, there would be inelastic rotation at constant resisting moment.
 For slabs the corresponding mechanism is the yield line(YL).
 For over loaded slab, the resisting moment per unit length measured along YL is
constant as inelastic rotation occurs.
 The yield line serves as an axis of rotation for the slab segment
 Yield line theory was developed in the early 1960s by the Danish engineer, K.W.
Johansen.
Basic assumptions
• The structure (slab) is collapsing because of bending moment
• Reinforced concrete is assumed to be ductile
• Axial (in plane) forces are ignored
• Small deformations as compared with the overall dimensions are assumed
Methods of analysis using ES EN 2015
. Elastic method
I

- moment distribution, Kani, slope deflection

II.Elastic method by allowing plastic moment redistribution
III. Plastic method of analysis
- yield line and strip method of analysis for slabs
- plastic hinge theory for framed structures
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Yield line theory
There are two approaches of calculation of the ultimate load carrying
capacity
 Energy method: uses principle of virtual work
 Equilibrium method: studies the equilibrium of the various parts
of the slab formed by the yield lines

Yield lines
 A slab is assumed to collapse at its ultimate load through system
of nearly straight lines which are called yield lines
 Divide the slab into a number of panels
 Complete formation of pattern of yield lines and panels is called
collapse mechanism
 The panels formed by the supports and yield lines are assumed
to be plane and therefore must possess a geometric compatibility

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 The bending moment along the yield lines is constant and equal to the value
corresponding to the yielding of steel reinforcement
 The panels rotate about along the supported edges and, in slab supported on
columns, the axis of rotation pass though the columns
 The yield lines on the sides of two adjacent panels pass though the point of
intersection of their axes of rotation
 Along the simple support edge the slab is free to rotate
 Along built in support the slab is not free to rotate, and the yield line is will
develop along this edge (hogging or negative moment)
 Field moment is sagging or positive
Sign convention and terminology

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Behavior of slab loaded failure in flexure
A reinforced concrete slab subjected to a first cycle of loading, increasing from zero up
till failure, passes through four stages
I. Uncracked stage
II. Stage of cracking
III. Plastfication range
IV. Complete collapse
 Plastfication range:
Slab starts to yield….increase the load…yielding continuous to develop along certain
lines…finally transform the slab in to a mechanism that leads to collapse
 The pattern of fractures depends upon
 Shape of slab
 Support condition
 Type of loading
 Amount and arrangement of reinforcement

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 Fig. deflection-load diagram from zero up till the failure load.

Before cracking, the slab acts as an elastic plate and the deformations,
stresses and strain can be predicted from an elastic analysis.
After cracking elastic solutions is still a good approximation provided that
the reinforcements have not yielded.
 Yielding of reinforcement eventually starts and in one or more regions of high
moment and spreads though the slab as moments are redistributed from yielded
regions to areas that are still elastic
•With further load, the regions of yielding, known as yield lines, divide the slab in to a
series of trapezoidal triangular elastic plates. The load corresponding to this stage of
behavior can be estimated using a yield line analysis.

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Upper and lower bound theorems
 ultimate collapse load of a structure lies between two limits, an upper bound and lower bound of
the true collapse load
 A full solution by a theory of plasticity would attempt to make the lower and upper bounds
converge to a single correct solution
Lower bound theorem
If for a given external load, it is possible to find distribution of moments that satisfies equilibrium
requirements, with the moment not exceeding the yield moment at any location, and if the
boundary conditions are satisfied, then the given load is a lower bound of the true carrying
capacity. Lower bound theorem (sometimes called the static theorem). The theorem is often
referred to as the safe theorem.
Upper bound theorem
• If for small increment of displacement, the internal work done by the slab, assuming that the
moment at every plastic hinge is equal to the yield moment and the boundary conditions are
satisfied, is equal to the external work done by the given load for the increment of displacement,
then that load is an upper bound of the carrying capacity. Upper bound theorem (sometimes called
the kinematic theorem). The upper bound theorem is often referred as unsafe theorem, because
interpreted in a design sense, it states that the value of the plastic moment obtained on the basis
of an arbitrarily assumed collapse mechanism is smaller than, or at best equal to, that actually
required.
• If the lower bound conditions are satisfied, the slab can certainly carry the given load, although a
higher may be carried if internal redistributions of moment occur. If the upper boundary conditions
are satisfied, a load greater than the given load will certainly cause failure, although a lower load
may produce collapse if selected failure mechanism is incorrect in any sense.

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Rules for yield lines
Guidelines for establishing axes of rotation and yield lines are summarized as follows:
• Yield lines are straight lines because they represent the intersection of two planes.
• Yield lines represent axes of rotation.
• The supported edges of the slabs will also establish axes of rotation. If the edge is
fixed, a negative (-ve) yield line may form providing constant resistance to rotation. If
the edge is simply supported the axis of rotation provides zero resistance.
• A yield line between two slab segments must pass through the point of intersection of
the axes of rotation of adjacent slab segment in order to satisfy compatibility of
deformations.
• The axis of rotation will pass along line supports and over columns.
Typical yield line patterns
• The fracture pattern is determined using the fundamentals and principles of the
fracture line theory.
• Once the general pattern of yielding and rotation has been established by applying the
guidelines, the specific location and orientation of the axes of rotation and failure load
of the slab can be established.
• The collapse load may be easily determined using either energy method, by applying
the principle of virtual work, or the equilibrium method by directly setting the
equation of parts of the fractured slab.

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Fig. some typical yield line patterns

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Fundamentals
• In the fracture line theory, the material of the slab is
assumed to be perfectly plastic.
• The ultimate moment is assumed to occur at the
yield stress of steel, with rectangular distribution of
compressive stresses in concrete.
• Thus, considering a unit width of the slab, the
ultimate moment m is given by
m= Asσy jd
Where: As is area of steel per unit width of slab
σy is the yield stress of steel
jd is the lever arm of internal forces
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 Fig. slab section and its stress distribution for calculation of ultimate
moment

Based on the arrangement of reinforcement slab may be:

•Isotropic slab:- two identical orthogonal sets of reinforcement
•Orthotropic slab:- two orthogonal sets of reinforcement but not identical
•Anisotropic slab:- provide with sets of reinforcement which are not at right angle

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• Consider anisotropic slab and let m1, m2,…, mn
represent the ultimate moment, per unit width, in the
directions 1, 2, …, n, respectively. It can be provide that
the ultimate moment ms, normal to plane s-s that
makes angle α1, α2, …, αn with these condition is given
by

• For orthotropic slab

ms = m1 cos2α + m2 sin2α
• For isotropic slab give the same value m for any angle
α, i.e., the slab has the same strength in all directions.
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 Fig. reinforcement arrangement of slab a) isotropic, b) orthotropic and c)
anisotropic
Method of analysis
There are two methods of yield line analysis of slabs:
•Virtual work method, and
•Equilibrium method
These two methods should give exactly the same results because they are
based on the same basic assumptions for the yield line
theory.
 In either method, a yield line pattern is assumed so that a collapse
mechanism is produced.
The next step is to determine the exact location of the yield lines. At this
point, one may select either the virtual work method or the equilibrium
method.
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Virtual work method
• According to the principle of virtual work “if a rigid body that is in
static equilibrium under the action of a set of forces is given a virtual
displacement, the sum of the virtual work done by external forces
and by the internal actions is equal to zero”.

Where, w = collapse load

D = vertical deflection through which collapse load moves
m = moment of resistance of slab per unit length
Q= rotation of the slab segment compatible with the deflection
L = length of yield line
• Virtual work method gives upper bound to the true collapse load.
• Different yield line patterns must be investigated to determine the
minimum collapse load by differential calculus.

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