Operating

Systems:
Internals Week-2
and Design
Principles Operating System
Overview
 Operating System
 A program that controls the execution of application
programs
 An interface between applications and hardware
Main objectives of an OS:
• convenience
• efficiency
• ability to evolve
 Operating System Services

 Program development
 Program execution
 Access I/O devices
 Controlled access to files
 System access
 Error detection and response
 Accounting
 Key Interfaces
 Instruction set architecture (ISA)
 Application binary interface (ABI)
 Application programming interface (API)
 The Role of an OS
 A computeris a set of resources for the
movement, storage, and processing of
data
 TheOS is responsible for managing these
resources
 Operating System
as Software
 Functions
in the same way as ordinary
computer software
 Program, or suite of programs, executed by
the processor
 Frequentlyrelinquishes control and must
depend on the processor to allow it to regain
control
Evolution of Operating Systems

 A major OS will evolve over time for a

number of reasons:
hardware upgrades

new types of hardware

new services

Fixes
 Evolution of
Operating Systems
 Stages include:

Time
Sharing
Multiprogrammed Systems
Batch Systems
Simple Batch
Systems
Serial
Processing
 Serial Processing
Earliest Computers: Problems:
 Scheduling:
 No operating system  most installations used a
 programmers interacted hardcopy sign-up sheet to
directly with the computer reserve computer time
hardware  time allocations could
 Computers ran from a console run short or long,
with display lights, toggle resulting in wasted
switches, some form of input computer time
device, and a printer  Setup time
 Users have access to the computer  a considerable amount of time
in “series” was spent just on setting up the
program to run
 Simple Batch Systems

 Early computers were very expensive

 important to maximize processor utilization
 Monitor
 user no longer has direct access to processor
 job is submitted to computer operator who batches them
together and places them on an input device
 program branches back to the monitor when finished
 Monitor Point of View
 Monitor controls the sequence of
events
 Resident Monitor is software
always in memory
 Monitor reads in job and gives
control
 Job returns control to monitor
 Processor Point of View
 Processor executes instruction from the memory containing
the monitor
 Executes the instructions in the user program until it
encounters an ending or error condition
 “control is passed to a job” means processor is fetching
and executing instructions in a user program
 “control is returned to the monitor” means that the
processor is fetching and executing instructions from the
monitor program
Job Control Language (JCL)
Special type of programming
language used to provide
instructions to the monitor

what compiler to use

what data to use

Desirable Hardware
Features
Memory protection for monitor

• while the user program is executing, it must not alter the memory area containing
the monitor

Timer

• prevents a job from monopolizing the system

Privileged instructions

• can only be executed by the monitor

Interrupts

• gives OS more flexibility in controlling user programs

 Modes of Operation

User Mode Kernel Mode

• user program executes in user • monitor executes in kernel
mode mode
• certain areas of memory are • privileged instructions may be
protected from user access executed
• certain instructions may not be • protected areas of memory
executed may be accessed
 Uniprogramming

 The processor spends a certain amount of time

executing, until it reaches an I/O instruction; it
must then wait until that I/O instruction
concludes before proceeding
 Multiprogramming

 There must be enough memory to hold the OS (resident monitor)

and one user program
 When one job needs to wait for I/O, the processor can switch to the
other job, which is likely not waiting for I/O
 Multiprogramming

 Multiprogramming
 also known as multitasking
 memory is expanded to hold three, four, or more programs and
switch among all of them
 Time-Sharing Systems
 Can be used to handle multiple interactive jobs
 Processor time is shared among multiple users
 Multipleusers simultaneously access the system
through terminals, with the OS interleaving the
execution of each user program in a short burst or
quantum of computation
 Development of the Process
 Three major lines of computer system development created
problems in timing and synchronization that contributed to
the development:
multiprogramming batch operation
• processor is switched among the various programs residing in main
memory

time sharing
• be responsive to the individual user but be able to support many users
simultaneously

real-time transaction systems

• a number of users are entering queries or updates against a database
 Causes of Errors
 Improper  Nondeterminate program
synchronization operation
 a program must wait until the  program execution is interleaved by
data are available in a buffer the processor when memory is
shared
 improper design of the
 the order in which programs are
signaling mechanism can result
scheduled may affect their outcome
in loss or duplication
 Deadlocks
 Failed mutual exclusion
 it is possible for two or more
 more than one user or program
programs to be hung up
attempts to make use of a shared
waiting for each other
resource at the same time
 only one routine at a time
 may depend on the chance
allowed to perform an update timing of resource allocation
against the file and release
 Components of
a Process
 A process contains  Theexecution context is
three components: essential:
 an executable program  it is the internal data by which
the OS is able to supervise and
 the associated data
control the process
needed by the program
(variables, work space,
 includes the contents of the
buffers, etc.) various process registers
 the execution context (or
 includes information such as
the priority of the process and
“process state”) of the
whether the process is waiting
program
for the completion of a
particular I/O event
Process
Management
 The entire state of the
process at any instant is
contained in its context

 New features can be

designed and incorporated
into the OS by expanding
the context to include any
new information needed to
support the feature
 Memory Management
 TheOS has five principal storage management
responsibilities:

automatic support of
process protection and long-term
allocation and modular
isolation access control storage
management programming
 Virtual Memory
 A facilitythat allows programs to address
memory from a logical point of view, without
regard to the amount of main memory physically
available
 Conceived to meet the requirement of having
multiple user jobs reside in main memory
concurrently
Paging
 Allows processes to be comprised of a number of fixed-size
blocks, called pages
 Program references a word by means of a virtual address
 consists of a page number and an offset within the page
 each page may be located anywhere in main memory
 Provides for a dynamic mapping between the virtual
address used in the program and a real (or physical) address
in main memory
 Different Architectural
Approaches
 Demands on operating systems require new
ways of organizing the OS

Different approaches and design elements have been tried:

• microkernel architecture
• multithreading
• symmetric multiprocessing
• distributed operating systems
• object-oriented design
 Multithreading
 Technique in which a process, executing an application, is
divided into threads that can run concurrently

Thread
• dispatchable unit of work
• includes a processor context and its own data area to enable subroutine
branching
• executes sequentially and is interruptible

Process
• a collection of one or more threads and associated system resources
• programmer has greater control over the modularity of the application
and the timing of application related events
End