Chapter 2 : Introduction to Assembly
Programming The Intel 8086 ISA
Instruction Set Architecture
Outline
Types of instructions
Arithmetic instructions
Shift and Rotation instructions
Boolean Instructions
Branching Instructions
Unconditional Jump Instructions
Conditional Jump Instructions
Translating Conditional Structures
2
Types of instructions (2)
Assignment statements (Mov):
Transfer CPU Main Memory (reading);
• Transfer CPU Main Memory (writing);
• Register to Register
Arithmetic and logical instructions :
• Transactions between data and the accumulator AX (Certain operation only).
• The result is placed in the accumulator.
• The data can be a constant or a value in a memory location.
Comparison Instructions
• Comparison of AX register to a data and updating Flags
Branching instructions
• The next instruction to execute in memory is indicated by the IP register
• Branching instructions can change the value of IP to execute another instruction
• There are two types of branching:
Unconditional branching: IP address of a new instruction
Conditional branching: If a condition is satisfied, then branching, otherwise go to next instruction
3
Next ...
Types of instructions
Arithmetic instructions
Shift and Rotation instructions
Boolean Instructions
Branching Instructions
Unconditional Jump Instructions
Conditional Jump Instructions
Translating Conditional Structures
4
Arithmetic instructions (1)
The basic arithmetic instructions are addition, subtraction, multiplication and division
that includes variants. Several addressing modes are possible
Addition: ADD destination , source ; destination = destination + source
Examples
ADD AH, [1100H] ;Adds the contents of the memory cell 1100H in AH (direct addressing)
ADD AH, [BX] ;Adds the contents of the cell pointed by BX in AH (based addressing)
ADD BYTE PTR [1200H], 05H ; adds 05H to content of the memory offset (immediate addressing)
Destination can be a register or a memory location
Source can be a register, memory location, or a constant
Destination and source must be of the same size
Memory-to-memory arithmetic is not allowed
Examples
ADD Tab1, Tab2 ; not allowed
; will be replaced by:
MOV AX, Tab2
ADD Tab1, AX
5
Arithmetic instructions (2)
Increment: INC Destination ; Destination =Destination + 1
Examples:
INC AX ; AX = AX + 1 (increment of 16 bits)
INC AL ; AL = AL + 1 (increments of 8 bits)
INC [SI] ; the contents of the memory cell pointed by SI is incremented
Subtraction : SUB destination , source ; destination = destination – source
Examples :
SUB AX, BX ; AX = AX - BX (Subtract 16-bit)
SUB AL, BH ; AL = AL - BH (Subtract 8-bit)
SUB AL, [SI] ; AL = AL - the contents of the memory cell pointed by SI
SUB [DI], AL ; the contents of the memory cell pointed by DI, Is subtracted from AL,
the result is set in the memory cell pointed by DI
Same restrictions like ADD instruction
6
Arithmetic instructions (3)
Decrement: DEC Destination ; Destination = Destination - 1
Examples:
DEC AX ; AX = AX - 1 (decrement of 16 bits)
DEC AL ; AL = AL - 1 (decrements of 8 bits)
DEC [SI] ; the contents of the memory cell pointed by SI is decremented
Note: You can’t decrement an immediate value
Negation: NEG Destination ; Destination = 0 – Destination
Examples: Note: The indicators
NEG AX ; AX = 0 - AX affected by this
NEG AL ; AL = 0 - AL operation are: AF,
NEG [IF] ; [IF] = 0 - [IF] CF, OF, PF, SF, ZF
Comparing : CMP Destination, Source ; Destination - Source
• It subtracts the source from destination, which can be a byte or a word
• The result is not set in the destination, because that instruction affects only the indicators
to be tested later with another conditional jump instruction (AF, CF, OF, PF, SF, ZF)
• Only effect the flags. For example after CMP AX, 5 we will have ZF = 1 if AX
contains the value 5, and ZF = 0 if AX is different from 5
7
Arithmetic instructions (4)
Affected Flags (ADD and SUB)
For each of the following marked entries, show the values of the destination
operand and the six status flags:
mov al,0FFh ; AL=-1
add al,1 ; AL= 00h C= 1 O= 0 S= 0 Z= 1 A= 1 P= 1
sub al,1 ; AL= FFh C= 1 O= 0 S= 1 Z= 0 A= 1 P= 1
mov al,+127 ; AL=7Fh
add al,1 ; AL= -128C= 0 O= 1 S=1 Z=0 A= 1 P=0
mov al,26h
sub al,95h ; AL= 91h C= 1 O= 1 S=1 Z=0 A=0 P=0
1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0
0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 26h (38) 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 26h (38)
– +
8
1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 95h (- 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 6Bh
107) (107)
1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 91h (- 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 91h (-
111) 111)
8
Arithmetic instructions (5)
Multiply: MUL operand ; there is two cases :
Performs the multiplication of the AL’s contents by an operand of 1 byte
The result is placed in AX (16 bit result) if operands are multiplied on a byte
MUL Op8 ; AL x Op8 → AX
Performs the multiplication of the contents of AX by an operand of 2 bytes
The result is placed in (DX:AX) (32 bit result) if operands are multiplied on a 2-byte
MUL Op16 ; AX x Op16 → DX:AX
The operand Op cannot be immediate, it is either a register or a memory position
If Op is memory position you must specify the size (byte or word)
MUL BL ; AL x BL → AX
MUL CX ; AX x CX → DX:AX
MUL BYTE [BX] ; AL x (byte referenced by BX) → AX
MUL WORD [BX] ; AX x (word referenced by BX) → DX :AX
The flags O and C are positioned if the higher part of the result is not zero
The higher part is AH for 8-bit multiplication and DX for 16-bit multiplication
9
Arithmetic instructions (6)
Examples
1. MOV AL,51 3. MOV AL ,43
MOV BL,32 MOV BYTE PTR [1200H],28
MUL BL ; → AX = 51 × 32 MUL BYTE PTR [1200H] ; → AX = 43 × 28
2. MOV AX,4253 4. MOV AX,1234
MOV BX,1689 MOV WORD PTR [1200H],5678
MUL BX ; → (DX, AX) = 4253 × 1689 MUL WORD PTR [1200H]
; → (DX, AX) = 1234 × 5678
10
Next ...
Types of instructions
Arithmetic instructions
Shift and Rotation instructions
Boolean Instructions
Branching Instructions
Unconditional Jump Instructions
Conditional Jump Instructions
Translating Conditional Structures
11
Shift and Rotation instructions (1)
We discuss here the instructions that work on the binary representation:
• bit shifts
• bitwise logical operations
They are used to
• A decode bitwise data
• divide or multiply rapidly by a power of 2
All these operations change the state indicators
These operations shift to the left or to the right Cste-bits of the accumulator
They can operate on AX, BX or DX (16 bits) or AH, AL, BH,BL, DH or DL (8 bits)
In shifts, the bits that are moved are replaced by zeros
There are logical shifts (unsigned operations) and arithmetic shifts (signed operations)
In the shift instructions, the operand can be To shift the contents of a memory cell
a constant Cste (immediate) or the CL register: you must specify the size :
INST AX, 1 ; 1-bit shift AX INST byte [BX], 1 ; 1-bit shift of the
INST BL, 4 ; 4-bits shift BL contents of memory cell referenced by
INST BX, CL ; CL-bits shift BX BX
12
Shift and Rotation instructions (2)
SHL ; Shift Left instruction
Shifting left 1 bit multiplies a number by 2
The last bit shifted out from the left becomes the Carry Flag
Shifting left n bits multiplies the operand by 2n (fast multiplication)
0
CF
Carry Flag
Example : 5 * 22 = 20
MOV DL,5 ; DL = 00000101b
SHL DL,2 ; DL = 00010100b = 20, Carry Flag = 0
13
Shift and Rotation instructions (3)
SHR ; Shift Right instruction
Performs a logical right shift on the destination operand
The last bit shifted out from the right becomes the Carry Flag
Shifting right n bits divides the operand by 2n (fast division)
0
CF
Example : (80 / 2)/4 = 10
MOV DL, 80 ; DL = 01010000b = 80
SHR DL, 1 ; DL = 00101000b = 40, CF = 0
SHR DL, 2 ; DL = 00001010b = 10, CF = 0
14
Shift and Rotation instructions (4)
SAR ; Shift Arithmetic Right
Performs a right arithmetic shift on the destination operand
Fills the newly created bit position with a copy of the sign bit
SAR preserves the number's sign
CF
Example
MOV DL,-80 ; DL = 10110000b
SAR DL,1 ; DL = 11011000b = -40, CF = 0
SAR DL,2 ; DL = 11110110b = -10, CF = 0
SAL : Shift Arithmetic Left is identical to SHL
15
Shift and Rotation instructions (5)
ROL ; Rotate Left instruction
Rotates each bit to the left, according to the count operand
Highest bit is copied into the Carry Flag and into the Lowest Bit
No bits are lost
Example CF
MOV AL,11110000b
ROL AL,1 ; AL = 11100001b, CF = 1
MOV DL,3Fh ; DL = 00111111b Provide finer control
ROL DL,4 ; DL = 11110011b = F3h, CF = 1 over bits than HLL
ROR ; Rotate Right instruction
Rotates each bit to the right, according to the count operand
Lowest bit is copied into the Carry flag and into the highest bit
No bits are lost
Other shift/rotate instr:
Example CF
• RCL ; Rotate Carry Left
MOV AL,11110000b • RCR ; Rotate Carry Right
ROR AL, 1 ; AL = 01111000b, CF = 0 • SHLD ; Shift Left Double
MOV DL, 3Fh ; DL = 00111111b • SHRD ; Shift Right Double
ROR DL, 4 ; DL = F3h, CF = 1 16
Next ...
Types of instructions
Arithmetic instructions
Shift and Rotation instructions
Boolean Instructions
Branching Instructions
Unconditional Jump Instructions
Conditional Jump Instructions
Translating Conditional Structures
17
Boolean Instructions (1)
AND destination, source ; Bitwise AND between each pair of matching bits
Following operand combinations are allowed
AND R, R We use the following abbreviations:
AND R, Adr INST: Instruction, Off: Offset address
R: any Register, Cste: given (Constant)
AND R, Cste SR: Segment Register disp: Displacement (Constant)
AND Cste, R OR: Offset Register Op: Operand
Adr: Address SO: Source Operand
AND Cste, Cste [Adr]: Memory content DO: Destination Operand
Operands can be 8 or 16 bits and they must be of the same size AND
AND instruction is often used to clear selected bits
00111011
AND0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1
cleared 00001011 unchanged
Forcing a bit at 0 without changing the other bits
18
Boolean Instructions (2)
OR destination, source ; Bitwise OR between each pair of matching bits
Following operand combinations are allowed
OR R, R
OR R, Adr OR
OR R, Cste
OR Cste, R
OR Cste, Cste
Operands can be 8 or 16 bits and they must be of the same size
OR instruction is often used to set selected bits
00111011
OR 11110000
set 11111011 unchanged
Forcing a bit at 1 without changing the other bits
19
Boolean Instructions (3)
Converting Characters to Uppercase Use the AND instruction to clear bit 5
AND instruction can convert MOV CX, LENGTHOF mystring
characters to uppercase MOV SI, OFFSET mystring
'a'= 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 'b’ = 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 L1: AND BYTE PTR [SI], 11011111b ;clear bit 5
'A’= 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 'B’ = 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 INC SI
LOOP L1
Converting Characters to Lowercase Use the OR instruction to set bit 5
OR instruction can convert characters to MOV CX, LENGTHOF mystring
lowercase MOV SI, OFFSET mystring
'A'= 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 'B' = 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 L1: OR BYTE PTR [SI], 20h ; set bit 5
'a'= 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 'b' = 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 INC SI
LOOP L1
20
Boolean Instructions (4)
XOR destination, source ; Bitwise XOR between each pair of matching bits
Following operand combinations are allowed
XOR R, R
XOR R, Adr
XOR R, Cste XOR
XOR Cste, R
XOR Cste, Cste
Operands can be 8 or 16 bits and they must be of the same size
XOR instruction is often used to invert selected bits
00111011
XOR 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0
inverted 11001011 unchanged
Inversing a bit without changing the other bits
21
Boolean Instructions (5)
NOT destination ; Inverts all the bits in a destination operand
Result is called the 1's complement NOT 00111011
Destination can be a register or memory 11000100 inverted
NOT R
NOT Adr
None of the Flags is affected by the NOT instruction
Affected Status Flags
The six status flags are affected
1) Carry Flag: cleared by AND, OR, and XOR
2) Overflow Flag: cleared by AND, OR, and XOR
3) Sign Flag: Copy of the sign bit in result
4) Zero Flag: Set when result is zero
5) Parity Flag: Set when parity in least-significant byte is even
6) Auxiliary Flag: Undefined by AND, OR, and XOR
22
