Intersection
SUDEEP THAPA
Definition of Intersection
An intersection is defined as “the general area where two or more highways join or
cross, within which the carriageway and roadside design features are included,
these road design features facilitate orderly traffic movements in that area”. An
intersection leg is “that part of any one of the highways radiating from an intersection which is
outside of the area of the intersection proper.”
Area shared by two or more roads.
area is designated for the vehicles to turn to different directions to reach their desired destinations.
Its main function is to guide vehicles to their respective directions.
Traffic intersections are complex locations on any highway.
vehicles moving in different direction want to occupy same space at the same time.
pedestrian also seek same space for crossing.
Drivers have to make split second decision at an intersection by considering his route, intersection
geometry, speed and direction of other vehicle.
A small error in judgment can cause severe accidents also may cause unwanted congestion in traffic routes.
Types of conflict at an Intersections
Crossing conflicts
Merging conflicts
Diverging conflicts
Types of intersection
Intersection at grade
these include all roads which meet at more or less the same Why we need to switch to grade separated
level. intersection?
Traffic maneuvers like merging, diverging and crossing are
involved in the intersection at grade. I. The existing at-grade intersection has
Grade separated intersection: The intersecting roads are reached its maximum capacity, which cannot
separated by difference in level, thus eliminating the crossing be improved further.
maneuvers. ii. The particular location has a very bad
Grade separated intersection without interchange
record of accident history as an at-grade
Overpass
Underpass
intersection.
Grade separated intersection with interchange iii. There is considerable economic
Three-leg Interchange justification for a grade separation in view of
T-interchange very heavy traffic volume and the loss caused
Y Interchange
by delays.
Partial Rotary interchange
Four leg interchange
iv. The topography of the location involves
Diamond interchange considerable earthwork or land acquisition
Half cloverleaf interchange for an at-grade intersection.
Cloverleaf interchange v. The facility is a high-end type such as an
Rotary interchange
Directional interchange
expressway or a freeway with through fast
traffic.
For intersections at grade
Four basic elements are generally Principles to be considered
considered in the design of 1. Minimum number of intersecting
intersection. roads i.e. minor roads merged
1. Human factors: driving habits and before intersections.
decision and reaction times.
2. Good layout to avoid hazardous
2. Traffic considerations; capacities
movement of traffic by channeling
and turning movements, vehicles speed
and size and distribution of vehicles.
and staggering.
3. Physical elements: characteristics 3. Clarity of path to be followed- traffic
and use of abutting property, sight islands, signs, road markings.
distances and geometric features. 4. Minimize conflict points by
4. Economic factors: costs and benefits separating them.
and energy consumptions. 5. Sufficient space for waiting vehicles.
Basic requirement
1. Reduce the number of conflict points.
2. Control the relative speed. (by providing signs, signal,markings)
3. Provide protection for vehicles leaving or crossing the main traffic stream.
(Channelization)
4. Reduce area of conflict.
5. Favor predominant or high speed traffic flows.
6. Provide proper and safe locations for traffic control devices.
7. Control or restrict access in the vicinity of an intersection.
8. Clearly define the travel paths to be followed.
9. Protect pedestrians and bicyclists.
10. Provide reference points for drivers: stop, giveway signs, markings.
11. Illuminate intersection areas.
Level of Intersection Control
Passive control: there is no explicit control on drivers
No control
Traffic signs
Traffic signs plus markings
Semi control: some amount of control from traffic agency
Channelization
Traffic rotaries
Active Control: the movement of the traffic is fully controlled by the traffic
agency and the drivers cannot simply maneuver the intersection according to his
choice.
Traffic signals
Intersection control strategy .
1. Right of way rule:
1. The vehicle which arrive first at intersection has the right of way and if they arrive at the same time vehicles on the
right will be given priority.
2. straight going vehicles should get priority than turning vehicles.
3. Vehicles on major road should get priority than vehicles on minor roads.
2. Stop sign (mandatory)-
1. at intersection where the stop sign is installed on any arm, all vehicles approaching the intersections must first stop
and then only proceed.
3. yield sign (mandatory)-
1. To assign the right of way to traffic and need to stop only when necessary to avoid interference with other traffic
that is given the right of way.
2. Usually provided at intersection of major and minor roads.
4. Manual control by traffic police- right of way will be indicated by traffic police.
5. Signalisation – green lights of installed traffic signals will indicate the right of way.
6. Street closure – access is closed with no entry sign.
7. Grade separation with full or partial control of access- indirect, semi direct and direct access.
Intersection at grade
Choice of particular intersection
layout depends on cost, capacity,
delay to vehicles, aesthetic and
safety
Unchannelized and channelized
intersections
Unchannelized and channelized intersections
Unchannelized
The intersection area is paved and there is absolutely no restriction to vehicles to
use part of intersection area. Lowest class of intersections, easiest in design and
most difficult in traffic operation with maximum conflict points and accidents.
Channelized
Intersection in which islands as well as traffic control devices are introduced at
intersection area, thereby reducing total conflict area available in the unchannelized
intersections. The direction of flow to definite paths by means of traffic marking,
islands or other means is known as channelization.
Note : wider exit and funnel entrance, small entry radius and large exit radius,
unused pavement areas can be covered to islands, edges of island offset 0.3m to
0.6m, diagonal marking in advance of divisional island.
Channelized Intersection
Advantages Disadvantages
Vehicles are confined to definite path. Requiring larger area
Decreased conflict area. Difficult design
Intersecting angle may be kept as One of the crossing vehicle will have
desired, control of angle of conflict. to stop while the other proceeds
Speed control of entering vehicle
Refuse islands for pedestrian within
intersection area.
Separated points of conflict.
Place for installation of traffic signs
Blockage of prohibited movement.
Grade separated intersections
It causes least delay and hazard to the crossing traffic and in general is
much superior than intersection at grade from the point of view of
traffic safety and efficient operation.
It is achieved by means of vertical level.
It may be either by an over bridge or under pass transform of route at
the grade separation is provided by interchange facilities consisting of
ramps.
Interchange ramps may be classified as direct, semi-direct or indirect.
Interchanges ramp
Direct Interchange ramp: Diverging from right side and merging to Right
Semi Direct Interchange Ramp: Diverging from left but merging to right
Indirect Interchange ramp: Diverging from left and Merging to the left
Grade Separated Intersection
Advantages Disadvantages
Maximum facility to the crossing traffic It is very costly to provide the complete
Increased safety to turning traffic grade separation and interchange
Increase in comfort and convenience to facilities.
the motorist and saving in travel time and Where there is limited right of way like
vehicle operation cost built up or urban area or where the
Capacity can practically approach to that topography is not favorable,
of cross roads. construction of grade separated is costly,
Possible to adopt for all likely angles and difficult and undesirable.
layout of intersecting roads In flat or plain terrain, grade separation
Stage construction of additional ramps is may introduce undesirable crests and
possible sags in the vertical alignment.
Types of grade separated intersection
Grade separated intersection without interchange
Overpass
Underpass
Grade separated intersection with interchange
Three-leg Interchange
T-interchange
Y Interchange
Partial Rotary interchange
Four leg interchange
Diamond interchange
Half cloverleaf interchange
Cloverleaf interchange
Rotary interchange
Directional interchange
Grade separation structures
Different kind of flyovers
1. Overpass: when the major highway is taken above by raising its profile
above the general ground level by the embankment and an over bridge
across another highway.
2. Underpass: if the major highway is taken by depressing it below the
ground level to cross another road by means of an under bridge
overpass
Advantage Disadvantages
Troublesome drainage problems may More vertical gradient.
be reduced. Increased grade resistance may cause speed
For same type of structure when the reduction on heavy vehicles.
Restriction to sight distances unless long
wider road is taken above the span of
vertical curves are provided.
the bridge being small, cost of bridge Difficult to provide in flat terrain
will be less.
Aesthetic preference to the main
through traffic in an overpass.
Future expansion or lateral
expansion or construction is possible.
underpass
Advantages Disadvantages
Warning to the traffic in Troublesome drainage problem
advance due to presence of an Overhead structure may restrict the
underpass. (Safety) vertical sight distance even at the
valley curve.
May be advantageous when the
Feeling of restriction to the traffic at
main highway is taken along the the sides.
existing grade without alteration No possibility of stage construction
of its vertical alignment
Three Way Interchange
Three Way
T intersection- The third leg intersects the approximate prolongation of
another leg between 750 to 1050. The equivalent interchange is called T-
Interchange or Trumpet Interchange.
T intersection- The third leg intersects the approximate prolongation of
another leg at an angle less than 750 or greater than 1050. The
equivalent interchange is called Y-Interchange
Classification Contd.
Four Leg Interchange (Four leg junctions)
Four way two lane junctions
Consisting of a single bridge and four one way slip roads.
Easily understood by motorists
Greater slip road capacity can be easily obtained
Conflict can occur at intersections where the slip roads meet the
crossing minor road.
If minor road traffic volume is heavy- need a pair of closely spaced
traffic signals with relatively long cycle times
Types of Four leg Interchange
Diamond Interchange:
It can be designed for a relatively narrow right of way of major road. A split diamond layout can be
adopted where two parallel cross street are available as connection to main street.
Half cloverleaf interchange
When a major road crosses a minor road (not more than 3 lanes), partial cloverleaf is provided. It is
generally adopted for major-minor road crossing.
Cloverleaf interchange:
is a four leg interchange with a single structure. It is adopted when two high volume and high speed
facilities intersect each other.
Rotary interchange (Roundabout)
Is a form of 4 leg interchange and can be used for multi-leg interchange
Directional interchange
Generally have more than one highway grade separation with direct or semi direct connection of
ramps for the major right turning traffic. These interchanges are rather complex and involve
complicated multi-level structures.
Diamond Interchange
Half clover leaf interchange
Rotary(multileg) Interchange
Cloverleaf interchange
Classification Contd.
Classification Contd.
Classification Contd.
Rotary Intersection
A form of channelized intersection in which vehicles are guided onto a one way roadway and
required to move in clockwise direction about a central island.
Eliminate the necessity of stopping even for crossing streams of vehicles and reduce the area of
conflicts.
The crossing conflict is eliminated and converted into weaving maneuver or a merging operation
from the right and diverging to the left.
Major advantages:
Orderly movement of vehicles
Possibility of having vehicle crossing conflicts can be considerably reduced.
For moderate traffic, rotary intersection are self governing
The variable cost of operation of vehicles is less
Suited when number of intersecting roads is more than four.
When the approach leg widths are restricted and it is impossible to provide separate lanes for
through and turning traffic, a rotary may be desirable.
Disadvantages of rotary intersection
Requires relatively large land area
When flow reaches capacity, weaving gives way to a stop and queue behind them
When pedestrian traffic is large, a rotary by itself can not control the traffic and has to
be supplemented by traffic police.
When angle of intersection of two roads is too acute or when there are more than seven
intersecting roads, rotaries are unsuitable (difficult to provide weaving length)
When provided at close intervals, they make travel troublesome.
At night central island and the entrances should be properly lighted.
Aesthetically pleasing central island landscaping is required.
Most suitable where volumes of entering traffic from all approaching legs are
approximately equal.
Rotaries are not generally warranted for intersection carrying very light traffic.
Design factors of Rotary intersection
Design speed (40 for rural and 30kmph for
urban)
Shape of central island
Radius of rotary roadway
Weaving angle and weaving distances
Width of carriageway at entry and exit
Width of rotary roadway
Radius of entry and exit curves
Capacity of rotary roadway
Channelizing island
Camber and superelevation
Sight distance and Grade
Lighting and signs
Provision for cyclist and pedestrian
Speed and shape
Design speed: speed of approaching vehicle should be reduced.
For urban road = 30kmph
For rural road = 40kmph
Shape of central island:
Shape of the island depends upon the number of intersecting roads.
Various shapes considered are circular, elliptical, turbine and tangent shapes.
Radius of rotary roadway:
Different radii at different points depending upon the shape of the central island
Governed by the design speed
Minimum radius is taken equal to the radius from calculation for the rotary radius for easiness and safety
As adequate superelevation can not be provided on the rotary roads, it is safer to neglect superelevation
and consider friction only.
Where, R= radius of island
f=0.43 and 0.47 for speeds 40kmph and 30kmph
respectively
Minimum radius of central island should be greater than 1.33 times radius of entry curve
Weaving angle and weaving length
the angle between the path of the entering vehicle and vehicle leaving the
rotary at the adjacent lane.
Weaving operation including merging and diverging can take place between
the two channelizing islands of the adjacent intersecting legs and this length
of the rotary roadway is known as weaving length.
For smooth flow of traffic,
Small weaving angle is preferred but should not be less than 15 degree as the diameter of the
central island required will be large.
Weaving length at least 4 times the width of weaving section. i.e.
Minimum recommended weaving length
45-90m for 40kmph
30-60m for 30kmph
Width of carriageway at entry Width of rotary roadway
Varies at various sections as the outer
and exit
Governed by the amount of traffic edge follows the entrance and exit road
sides.
entering or leaving the rotary. Effective width is the width between
Minimum carriageway width at the edge of central island and the
entrance and exit=5.0m adjoining curb.
Entry width may be increased by Width of non-weaving section should
6.5,70 and 8.0m when the be equal to the widest single entry
(generally less than the width of
carriageway width of approaching weaving section).
road is 7.0, 10.5 and 14.0m The width of weaving section should be
respectively one traffic lane wider than the mean
width of the entry and non weaving
section
Entrance and exit curves
Entrance and exit curves
Inner rear wheel determines the radius and shape of the curb lines.
Radius of the entrance curve should be same as the minimum recommended radius of
the central island.
For the design speed of 40kmph: entry radius=25 to 35m
For the design speed of 30kmph: entry radius= 15 to 25m
Exit radius= 1.5 to 2 times the entry radius
Extra widening has to be provided at the entrance and exit curves
Capacity of rotary
Where,
Qp= practical capacity of the weaving section of a rotary in PCU per hour.
W= width of weaving section (6 to 18m)
e= average width of entry e1 and width of non-weaving section e2
for the range e/W= 0.4 to 1.0
L= length of weaving section between the ends of channelizing islands in metre for the range of W/L=
0.12 to 0.4
P= proportion of weaving traffic=
a= left turning traffic moving along left extreme lane
d = right turning traffic moving along right extreme lane
b= crossing/weaving traffic turning towards right while entering the rotary
c= crossing/weaving traffic turning towards left while leaving the rotary
Channelizing islands
Should be provided at the entrance and exit of the rotary to prevent
undesirable weaving, and turning and to reduce area of conflict.
It helps in forcing the vehicle to reduce their speed to the design speed
of the rotary and to serve as convenient place for erecting traffic signs
and as a pedestrian refuge.
Shape and size of channelizing island is governed by the radius of the
rotary, radii of the entrance and exit curves and the angles and layout of
the radial road and rotary.
The channelizing islands are generally provided with kerbs 15 to 21 cm
high.
Camber and superelevation Sight distance and grade
The cross slope of rotary Sight distance should be as large
roadway at the point of change as possible and in no case less
in direction should be than the SSD for the design
minimum. speed.
The outer slope of the camber Min sight distance should be 45
helps the vehicle in turning left and 30 for design speed of 40
towards the exit curve to the and 30kmph respectively.
radiating road. Slope not exceeding 1 in 50 with
the horizontal
lighting Traffic signs
Min lighting required is one Traffic signs indicating the presence
each on the edge of the central of rotary intersection should be
island facing each radiating installed at all approaching road to
give advance information to the
road.
traffic.
At night a red reflector is placed at
above one metre above the road
level on the nose of each directional
island and on the kerb of the central
island facing the approaching road.
Provision for cyclists and pedestrians
As far as possible pedestrian and cyclist should be isolated from the
general traffic.
If number of cyclist is less than 50 per hour , they are permitted to mix
with other traffic.
If they are more a separate cycle track is desirable
If there are large number of pedestrian , separate footpath with guard
rails should be provided around the rotary on the outer side to prohibit
them from entering the rotary.
Provision for crossing is given by subway or over bridge.
Capacity of rotary
Where,
Qp= practical capacity of the weaving section of a rotary in PCU per hour.
W= width of weaving section (6 to 18m)
e= average width of entry e1 and width of non-weaving section e2
for the range e/W= 0.4 to 1.0
L= length of weaving section between the ends of channelizing islands in metre for the range of W/L=
0.12 to 0.4
P= proportion of weaving traffic=
a= left turning traffic moving along left extreme lane
d = right turning traffic moving along right extreme lane
b= crossing/weaving traffic turning towards right while entering the rotary
c= crossing/weaving traffic turning towards left while leaving the rotary
Traffic flows in an urban section at the intersection of two highways in the design year are given below.
Design a rotary intersection making suitable assumption
Solution:
Total Maximum flow in both direction occurs at south leg= 2875pcu/hr
Maximum flow in single direction occurs at 1544 pcu/hr
Since the intersection is at urban area,
So assume, Design speed= 30kmph
Since the intersecting roads are major highways,
So assume the central island is circular
Entrance and exit angles= 45 degree
Entry radius= 20m (15-25m)
Exit radius= 2*20=40m (1.5-2 times of entry radius)
Radius of central island should be greater than 1.33*entry radius,
So radius of central island= 30m
Let us assume the entry and exit width= 10m
Also assume width of non weaving section= 10m
So width of weaving section= 13.5m
Since weaving width should be at least greater or equal to 4 times weaving width
So weaving length= 30m
From formula,
Maximum weaving occurs in ES section
Proportion of weaving traffic(p)=0.72
Capacity of rotary roadway= 4015 pcu/hr which is greater than 2746 pcu/hr
So design is acceptable
