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SCHOOL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING & ARCHITECTURE

HIGHWAY ENGINEERING I CENG 3206

Chapter Six
Intersection and
Interchanges

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 Highway Engineering I
Chapter Six
Intersection and Interchanges
6.1 Introduction to Intersection
6.2 Design Principles of At-Grade
Intersections
6.3 Traffic Controls

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 6.1. Intersection
• It is the area shared by two or more roads
serving conflicting traffic when competing
for the same space at the same time when
going ahead or changing directions.
• Intersections vary in complexity from a
simple to three or more roads cross within
the same area.
• The process of decision making for road
users at intersections is complex and this is
reason why intersections tend to have a high
potential for accidents and delays. 3
 Types of Intersection
A. At-grade intersections: intersections which do
not provide for the flow of traffic at
different levels, and therefore there exist
conflicts between intersecting streams of traffic
B. Grade-separated without ramp
C. Grade-separated with ramps (commonly known
as interchanges): consists of structures that
provide for traffic to cross at different levels
(vertical distances) without interruption.
• The accidents at grade-separated
intersections is reduced because many
conflicts between intersecting streams of
traffic are eliminated.
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 1. At Grade of Intersection
• At Grade Intersections:
• Most highways intersect at grade, and
• The intersection area should be designed to
provide adequately for turning and crossing
movements, with due consideration to sight
distance, signs, and alignments.
• The basic types of at-grade intersections are
• T, Y or three-leg intersections, which consist
of three approaches;
• four-leg or cross intersections, which consist
of four approaches; and
• multileg intersections., 5
At Grade Intersection

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 At Grade Intersection
CONFLICT POINTS AT INTERSECTIONS
 The three types of conflicts are;
 Merging,
 Diverging, and
 Crossing.
 The number of possible conflict points at
any intersection depends on
The number of approaches,
The turning movements, and
The type of traffic control at the
intersection.
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 At Grade Intersection

There are 32 conflict

points in this case.
o Merging conflict points –
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x Diverging conflict points
–8
Crossing conflict points
- 16
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2. Grade Separations &
interchanges
• IAG can be eliminated by the use of grade-separation
structures that permit the cross flow of traffic at different
levels
• The advantage of such separation is
– the freedom from cross interference
– saving of time and increase in safety for traffic
movements.
• Grade separations and interchanges may be warranted:
– As part of an express highway system designed to carry
high volumes of traffic,
– To eliminate bottlenecks, and prevent accidents,
– Where the topography is such that other types of design
are not feasible,
– Where the road user benefit of reducing delays at an at-
grade intersection exceeds the cost of the improvement.
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 Interchange
• It is a grade separation in which vehicles
moving in one direction of flow may
transfer by the use of connecting
roadways called ramps.
• The choice of interchanges types depends
on various factors such as traffic,
economy, safety, aesthetics, delay,
space requirements, etc.
• Interchange is a system of
interconnecting roadways in conjunction
with one or more grade separations
that provide for the movement of traffic
between two or more roadways on different11
Interchanges Configuration

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Interchanges Configuration

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 Design principle
• The fundamental objectives of at-grade
intersections is
o To minimize delay & the number of conflicts
among traffic & between pedestrian &
turning vehicles.
• Therefore design should include
characteristics of both the vehicles and
pedestrians using the intersection.
o Eg. the corner radius of an intersection
should not be less than either the turning
radius of the DV or the radius required for
design velocity of the turning roadway
under consideration.
• This suggests that at-grade intersections 14
 Design principle
• Generally, the design of at-grade intersection
involves:
The design of the alignment including
profiles, minimum radius and widths of
turning roadways,
The design of a suitable channelling system
for the traffic pattern,
The assurance that the sight distances are
adequate for the type of control at the
intersection.

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 Alignment of At-Grade Intersections:
• The best alignment for an at-grade intersection is
when the intersecting roads meet at right or
nearly right angles.
• This is because much less road area is required for
turning at the intersection, there is a lower
exposure, time for vehicles crossing the main
traffic flow, and visibility limitations, particularly
for trucks, are not as serious as those at acute-
angle intersections.
• In designing the profile (vertical alignment) at the
intersection, large changes in grade should be
avoided; preferably, grades should not be greater
than 3 percept. When it is unavoidable to use
grades of 3 percept or more, design factors such
as stopping distances and accelerating distances
should be adjusted so that conditions equivalent
to those on level ground exist. In any case, it is not
advisable to use grades higher than 6 percept at
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intersections.
 Cont…
 The combination of horizontal and vertical
alignments at an intersection should produce
traffic lanes that are clearly seen by
motorists at all times, without the sudden
appearance of potential hazards.
 The angle of turn, the turning speed, the
design vehicle, and traffic volume are the
main factors governing the design of curves
at at-grade intersections.
 When the turning speed at an intersection
is assumed to be 25 km/h or less, the curves
for the pavement edges are designed to
conform to at least the minimum turning path
of the DV. When the turning speed is expected
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Channelization of At-grade Intersections:
• AASHTO defines channelization as the
separation of conflicting traffic by traffic
islands or pavement markings to facilitate the
safe movement for both vehicles and
pedestrians.
• A traffic island is a defined area between
traffic lanes where vehicular traffic is excluded
and provided to regulate the movement of
vehicles or to serve as a pedestrian refuge.
• Properly designed channelization systems
increase intersection capacity and decrease
conflicts and accidents.
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Channelization of At-grade Intersections:
• Islands in an intersection serve one or more
of the following purposes:
• Separation of conflicts
• Control of angle of conflict
• Reduction of excessive pavement areas
• Regulation of traffic flow in the
intersection area
• Arrangements to favour a predominant
turning movement
• Protection of pedestrians
• Protection and storage of turning and
crossing vehicles
• Location of traffic control devices.
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 Cont…
 Islands are generally grouped into three
major classes:
› directional or channelised: designed
primarily to guide the motorist through
the intersection by indicating the
intended route.
› Divisional :frequently used on undivided
highways approaching intersections.
They serve to alert the driver to the
intersection and regulate the flow of
traffic into and out of the intersection.
› Refuge: located at or near crosswalks to
aid and protect pedestrians crossing
the roadway. Refuge islands are most
generally used on wide streets in urban
areas for loading and unloading of
transit riders . 20
 CHANNELISATION OF AT-GRADE INTERSECTIONS:

• Channelization of intersections is considered

for one or more of the following factors:
– To confine paths of vehicles
– To control the angle and locations of
merge, diverge or cross conflicts
– To give priority for the predominant
movement
– To give area of refugee for pedestrians
– To provide space for installing traffic
control devices where they can be clearly
seen
– To control prohibited turns
– To restrict the speed of vehicles to some
extent 21
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 Sight Distance at
 Accident at anIntersections:
intersection can be reduced by
providing sight distances that allow drivers to have an
unobstructed view of the entire intersection
 At-grade intersections either have no control or are
controlled by one of the following methods: yield
control, stop control, or signal control.
 At signalised intersections, the unobstructed view may
be limited to the area where the signals are located,
but for un-signalised intersections, it is necessary to
provide an adequate view of the d crossroadsaor
b

intersecting highways to reduce the potential of
collision with crossing vehicles. d a da  b

 As shown in the schematic sight triangle, the safe

stopping sight distance for the give design speed
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should be used for d and d . It can be seen from that
 Sight Distance at Intersections:

db a

da da  b

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Sight Distance Requirements
Sight Distance Requirements for No-Control
Intersections: -
 In this situation the intersection is not
controlled by a yield sign, a stop sign, or a
traffic signal, but sufficient sight distance is
provided for the operator of a vehicle
approaching the intersection to see a
crossing vehicle and if necessary to adjust
the vehicle's speed so as to avoid a collision..
Sight Distance Requirements for Yield-Control
Intersections: -
 In this situation the minor road is controlled
by a yield sign. 25
 INTERSECTION SIGHT DISTANCE
• Sight distance requirements at-grade
intersections are based upon the following
five different cases of intersection control:
• Level I – Basic Rules of the Road or No-
Control Intersections
• Level II – Direct assignment of right-of-
way using YIELD or STOP signs
• Level III – Traffic Signalization
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 Level I – Basic Rules of the Road
• Apply at any intersection where right-of-way
is not explicitly assigned through the use of
traffic signals, STOP, or YIELD signs.
• Its often specified that through vehicles
have the right-of-way over turning vehicles
at uncontrolled intersections.
• Drivers on conflicting approaches must be
able to see each other in time to assess
whether an “impending hazard” is imposed,
and to take appropriate action to avoid an
accident.

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No-Control Intersections cont…
• AASHTO suggests that, to ensure safe
operation with no control, both drivers
should be able to stop before reaching
the collision point when they first see
each other.
• In other words, dA and dB should be
equal to or greater than the safe
stopping distance at the points where
visibility is established.

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 No-Control Intersections cont…
From similarity of triangles;
=
Where:
dA = Distance from vehicle A to the collision
point, ft.
dB = Distance from vehicle B to the collision
point, ft.
a = Distance from driver position in vehicle A to
the sight obstruction, measured parallel to the
path of vehicle B, ft.
b = Distance from driver position in vehicle B to
the sight obstruction, measured parallel to the
path of vehicle A, ft. 30
No-Control Intersections cont…
Rule-1: Safe stopping distance:

Where:
ds= safe stopping distance, ft
Si = initial speed of vehicle, mi/hr
G=grade,%
t =reaction time, s
0.348 = standard friction factor for
stopping maneuvers.
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 No-Control Intersections cont…
Rule-2
Vehicle A must travel 18 feet past the
collision point in the same time that
vehicle B travels to a point 12 feet before
the collision point.

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 Example:

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 No-Control Intersections cont…
STEP – 1
= 196.5 ft.
STEP -2
= = 25.4ft.
Step -3
= 300.3 ft.
12 = 298.0 ft.
dB, act <<dB, min - - - - - - - - - Both rules
are violated!
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Exercise
• For an intersection of two rural roads shown
below, determine whether or not operation
under basic rules of the road would be safe.

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Level II – YIELD and STOP Control
• Stop or yield signs should be used at an
intersection if one or more of the following
conditions exist:
A. An intersection of a less important road with
a main road where application of the normal
right-of-way rule would not be expected to
provide reasonable compliance with the law:
B. A street entering a designated through
highway: and/or
C. An un-signalized intersection within a
signalized area.

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Level II – YIELD and STOP Control
YIELD Control

STOP Control

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Level II – YIELD and STOP Control
Site distance criteria for STOP-controlled
intersections (AASHTO)
The methodology is based upon observed gap
acceptance behavior of drivers at STOP controlled
intersections.
The distance to the collision point d A has three
components:
Distance from the driver’s eye to the front of the
vehicle (assumed to be 8 ft)
Distance from the front of the vehicle to the curb
line (assumed to be 10 ft)
Distance from the curb line to the center of the
right-most travel lane approaching from the curb
line to the left-most travel lane approaching from
the right (dcl) 38
Level II – YIELD and STOP Control
dA-STOP = 18 + dcl
Where:
dA-STOP = distance of vehicle A on a STOP-
Controlled approach from the collision point, ft.
dcl =distance from the curb line to the center
of the closest travel lane from the direction
under consideration, ft.

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Level II – YIELD and STOP Control
dB-min = 1.47 * Smaj * tg
Where:
dB-min = minimum sight distance for vehicle B
approaching on major( uncontrolled)
street, ft.
Smaj = design speed of major street, mi/hr.
tg = average gap accepted by minor street
driver to enter the major road, sec. (ranges
6.5 sec to 12.5 sec, AASHTO recommends
7.5 sec for left turn movements.)

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Level II – YIELD and STOP Control
Example: Speed of VB =40mph

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Level II – YIELD and STOP Control
Solution:
dA-STOP (from left) = 18 .0+ 6.0 = 24.0 ft.
dA-STOP (from right)= 18.0 + 18.0 = 36.0 ft.
• The minimum sight distance requirement for
vehicle B is determined:
dB, min = 1.47*40*7.5 = 441 ft.
• Now, the actual distance of vehicle B from
the collision point when visibility is
established is determined as:
dB, act(from left)=
dB, act(from right)=
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 Level III – Traffic Signalization
• One of the most effective ways of
controlling traffic at an intersection.
• Can be used to eliminate many conflicts
because different traffic streams can be
assigned the use of the intersection at
different times.
• Most important factor that determines
the need for traffic signals:
• Intersection‘s approach traffic volume
and accident experience

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 Level III – Traffic Signalization…Con’t
• The primary objective in the design of
a traffic control system at an
intersection is to reduce the number
of significant conflict points.

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 Level III – Traffic Signalization
The purpose of traffic control is to
assign the right of way to drivers, and
thus to facilitate highway safety by
ensuring the orderly and predictable
movement of all traffic on highways,
o control may be achieved by using traffic
signals, signs, or markings that regulate,
guide, warn, and/or channel traffic.

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Level III – Traffic Signalization

• 4-leg intersection single-lane approach

no signal control
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 6.3 Intersection Control
• Traffic control device is the medium used for
communicating between traffic engineer and
road users.
• Unlike other modes of transportation, there is
no control on the drivers using the road.
– Here traffic control devices come to the
help of the traffic engineer.
• The major types of traffic control devices
used are:
– Traffic Signs,
– Road Markings,
– Traffic Signals 47
 Traffic Signal
• Control devices which alternately direct
traffic to stop and proceed at intersection
using red, green and amber light signal

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 Disadvantages- Traffic signal
 Rear end collision may
increase
 Excessive delay to vehicle
may caused in off peak hour
 Failure of signal due to
electric power failure or any
other cause- confusion to road
user
 Improper design and
location of signals lead to
violation of control system

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 Warrants for Traffic signal
• Traffic signal should not be installed unless
one or more of the following signal
warrants are met
▪ Minimum vehicular volume
▪ Interruption of continuous traffic
▪ Minimum pedestrian volume
▪ Accident Experience
▪ Combination of warrant

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 Types of traffic signal
Type of traffic signals:
• Fixed time signals:
– Pre-timed signals are set to repeat regularly
o cycle of red , yellow (amber) and green
lights.
• Vehicle actuated signals:
– Signals in which the green periods vary and
related to the actual demands by traffic.
• Semi-vehicle actuated signals:
– The right of way rests with the main road
and detectors are located only on minor
roads.
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 Traffic control signal

 Have three coloured light facing
each direction of traffic flow
 Red light- STOP
 Green light- GO or PROCEED
 Amber or yellow- CLEARNCE TIME

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