Anatomy and

Physiology
Lecture 5

Muscles and their groups

 Types of Muscle
• Skeletal
• Cardiac
• Smooth
Identify the muscles shown
below
• Skeletal muscle fibers are multinucleated structures
that compose the skeletal muscle.
• Cardiac muscle fibers each have one to two nuclei
and are physically and electrically connected to each
other so that the entire heart contracts as one unit
(called a syncytium).
• Because the actin and myosin are not arranged in such
regular fashion in smooth muscle, the cytoplasm of a
smooth muscle fiber (which has only a single nucleus) has
a uniform, nonstriated appearance (resulting in the name
smooth muscle).
• However, the less organized appearance of smooth
muscle should not be interpreted as less efficient.
• Smooth muscle in the walls of arteries is a critical
component that regulates blood pressure necessary to
push blood through the circulatory system; and smooth
muscle in the skin, visceral organs
• Smooth muscle in the GI tract is responsible for peristalsis
and moving all materials through the body.
 Commonalities in all muscle
types
• Excitability
• Extensibility
• Contractility
 Skeletal muscle
• Movement
• Attached to long bones
 Smooth Muscle
• Skin -hair follicles
• it also is found in the walls of internal organs
• blood vessels
• GI tract
 Similarities and differences
• Differences among the three muscle types include the microscopic
organization of their contractile proteins—actin and myosin.
• The actin and myosin proteins are arranged very regularly in the cytoplasm
of individual muscle cells (referred to as fibers) in both skeletal muscle and
cardiac muscle, which creates a pattern, or stripes, called striations.
• Skeletal muscle fibers are multinucleated structures that compose the
skeletal muscle.
• Cardiac muscle fibers each have one to two nuclei and are physically and
electrically connected to each other so that the entire heart contracts as
one unit (called a syncytium).
 Smooth Muscle
• actin and myosin are not arranged in such regular fashion
in smooth muscle, the cytoplasm of a smooth muscle
fiber (which has only a single nucleus) has a uniform,
nonstriated appearance (resulting in the name smooth
muscle
• Non striated
 Skeletal Muscle
• The best-known feature of skeletal muscle is its ability to
contract and cause movement. Skeletal muscles act not only to
produce movement but also to stop movement, such as
resisting gravity to maintain posture.
• Small, constant adjustments of the skeletal muscles are
needed to hold a body upright or balanced in any position.
• Muscles also prevent excess movement of the bones and joints,
maintaining skeletal stability and preventing skeletal structure
damage or deformation
• .Joints can become misaligned or dislocated entirely by
pulling on the associated bones; muscles work to keep
joints stable.
• Skeletal muscles are located throughout the body at the
openings of internal tracts to control the movement of
various substances. These muscles allow functions, such
as swallowing, urination, and defecation, to be under
Voluntary control. Skeletal muscles also protect internal
organs (particularly abdominal and pelvic organs) by
acting as an external barrier or shield to external trauma
and by supporting the weight of the organs.
• Skeletal muscles contribute to the maintenance of
homeostasis in the body by generating heat. Muscle
contraction requires energy, and when ATP is broken
down, heat is produced. This heat is very noticeable
during exercise, when sustained muscle movement causes
body temperature to rise, and in cases of extreme cold,
when shivering produces random skeletal muscle
contractions to generate heat.
• Each muscle is wrapped in a sheath of dense, irregular
connective tissue called the epimysium, which allows a
muscle to contract and move powerfully while maintaining
its structural integrity. The epimysium also separates
muscle from other tissues and organs in the area, allowing
the muscle to move independently.
• Each skeletal muscle is an organ that consists of various
integrated tissues. These tissues include the skeletal
muscle fibers, blood vessels, nerve fibers, and connective
tissue.
• Each skeletal muscle has three layers of connective tissue
(called “mysia”) that enclose it and provide structure to
the muscle as a whole, and also compartmentalize the
muscle fibers within the muscle.
• Inside each skeletal muscle, muscle fibers are organized into individual
bundles, each called a fascicle, by a middle layer of connective tissue
called the perimysium.
• This fascicular organization is common in muscles of the limbs; it allows the
nervous system to trigger a specific movement of a muscle by activating a
subset of muscle fibers within a bundle, or fascicle of the muscle.
• Inside each fascicle, each muscle fiber is encased in a thin connective tissue
layer of collagen and reticular fibers called the endomysium. The
endomysium contains the extracellular fluid and nutrients to support the
muscle fiber. These nutrients are supplied via blood to the muscle tissue.
• In skeletal muscles that work with tendons to pull on bones,
the collagen in the three tissue layers (the mysia) intertwines
with the collagen of a tendon.
• At the other end of the tendon, it fuses with the periosteum
coating the bone.
• The tension created by contraction of the muscle fibers is
then transferred though the mysia, to the tendon, and then to
the periosteum to pull on the bone for movement of the
skeleton.
 Skeletal muscle

• In other places, the mysia may fuse with a broad, tendon-like sheet called
an aponeurosis, or to fascia, the connective tissue between skin and bones.
The broad sheet of connective tissue in the lower back that the latissimus
dorsi muscles (the “lats”) fuse into is an example of an aponeurosis.
• Every skeletal muscle is also richly supplied by blood vessels for nourishment,
oxygen delivery, and waste removal. In addition, every muscle fiber in a
skeletal muscle is supplied by the axon branch of a somatic motor neuron,
which signals the fiber to contract. Unlike cardiac and smooth muscle, the
only way to functionally contract a skeletal muscle is through signaling from
the nervous system.
 Skeletal Muscle -
• Because skeletal muscle cells are long and cylindrical,
they are commonly referred to as muscle fibers.
• During early development, embryonic myoblasts, each
with its own nucleus, fuse with up to hundreds of other
myoblasts to form the multinucleated skeletal muscle
fibers. Multiple nuclei mean multiple copies of genes,
permitting the production of the large amounts of proteins
and enzymes needed for muscle contraction.
 Skeletal Muscle

• Some other terminology associated with muscle fibers is rooted in the

Greek sarco, which means “flesh.” The plasma membrane of muscle
fibers is called the sarcolemma, the cytoplasm is referred to
as sarcoplasm, and the specialized smooth endoplasmic reticulum,
which stores, releases, and retrieves calcium ions (Ca++) is called
the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) (Figure 2). As will soon be described,
the functional unit of a skeletal muscle fiber is the sarcomere, a highly
organized arrangement of the contractile myofilaments actin (thin
filament) and myosin (thick filament), along with other support proteins.
 Skeletal muscle
• Some other terminology associated with muscle fibers is rooted in
the Greek sarco, which means “flesh.” The plasma membrane of
muscle fibers is called the sarcolemma, the cytoplasm is referred to
as sarcoplasm, and the specialized smooth endoplasmic reticulum,
which stores, releases, and retrieves calcium ions (Ca++) is called
the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR)
• As will soon be described, the functional unit of a skeletal muscle
fiber is the sarcomere, a highly organized arrangement of the
contractile myofilaments actin (thin filament) and myosin (thick
filament), along with other support proteins.
 Sarcomere
• The sarcomere is the functional unit of the muscle fiber.
• The sarcomere itself is bundled within the myofibril that runs the entire
length of the muscle fiber and attaches to the sarcolemma at its end.
• As myofibrils contract, the entire muscle cell contracts. Hundreds to
thousands (each with thousands of sarcomeres) of myofibrils be found
inside one muscle fiber.
• Each sarcomere is approximately 2 μm in length with a three-dimensional
cylinder-like arrangement and is bordered by structures called Z-discs (also
called Z-lines, because pictures are two-dimensional),
 Sarcomere
• Troponin and Tropomyosin are regulatory proteins
• Each packet of these microfilaments and their regulatory
proteins, troponin and tropomyosin (along with other
proteins) is called a sarcomere.
• actin myofilaments are anchored to the Z disc.
• Because the actin and its troponin-tropomyosin complex
(projecting from the Z-discs toward the center of the sarcomere
form strands that are thinner than the myosin, it is called
the thin filament of the sarcomere.
• Likewise, because the myosin strands and their multiple heads
(projecting from the center of the sarcomere, toward but not all
to way to, the Z-discs) have more mass and are thicker, they are
called the thick filament of the sarcomere.
• The site where a motor neuron’s terminal meets the
muscle fiber—called the neuromuscular junction
(NMJ).
• This is where the muscle fiber first responds to signaling
by the motor neuron.
• Every skeletal muscle fiber in every skeletal muscle is
innervated by a motor neuron at the NMJ. Excitation
signals from the neuron are the only way to functionally
activate the fiber to contract.
• T-tubules ensure that the membrane can get close to the
SR in the sarcoplasm. The arrangement of a T-tubule with
the membranes of SR on either side is called a triad
• The triad surrounds the cylindrical structure called
a myofibril, which contains actin and myosin.
• The T-tubules carry the action potential into the interior
of the cell, which triggers the opening of calcium
channels in the membrane of the adjacent SR, causing
Ca++ to diffuse out of the SR and into the sarcoplasm. It is
the arrival of Ca++ in the sarcoplasm that initiates
contraction of the muscle fiber by its contractile units, or
sarcomeres.
 Homework
• Define motor unit,what is large motor unit,what is a small
motor unit
• For a skeletal muscle fiber to contract, its membrane must first
be “excited”—in other words, it must be stimulated to fire an
action potential.
• The muscle fiber action potential, which sweeps along the
sarcolemma as a wave, is “coupled” to the actual contraction
through the release of calcium ions (Ca++) from the SR. Once
released, the Ca++ interacts with the shielding proteins, forcing
them to move aside so that the actin-binding sites are available
for attachment by myosin heads. The myosin then pulls the
actin filaments toward the center, shortening the muscle fiber.
• In skeletal muscle, this sequence begins with signals from the
somatic motor division of the nervous system. In other words,
the “excitation” step in skeletal muscles is always triggered by
signaling from the nervous system
• The sequence of events that result in the contraction of an individual
muscle fiber begins with a signal—the neurotransmitter, ACh—from
the motor neuron innervating that fiber. T
• the local membrane of the fiber will depolarize as positively charged
sodium ions (Na+) enter, triggering an action potential that spreads
to the rest of the membrane will depolarize, including the T-tubules.
• This triggers the release of calcium ions (Ca ++) from storage in the
sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR). The Ca ++ then initiates contraction,
which is sustained by ATP (Figure 1).
• As long as Ca++ ions remain in the sarcoplasm to bind to troponin,
which keeps the actin-binding sites “unshielded,” and as long as ATP
is available to drive the cross-bridge cycling and the pulling of actin
strands by myosin, the muscle fiber will continue to shorten to an
anatomical limit.
 Muscle Contraction
• Muscle contraction usually stops when signaling from the
motor neuron ends, which repolarizes the sarcolemma and
T-tubules, and closes the voltage-gated calcium channels
in the SR. Ca++ ions are then pumped back into the SR,
which causes the tropomyosin to reshield (or re-cover) the
binding sites on the actin strands. A muscle also can stop
contracting when it runs out of ATP and becomes fatigued
(Figure 2).
• (a) What are “T-tubules” and what is their role?
• The T-tubules are inward extensions of the sarcolemma that
trigger the release of Ca++ from SR during an Action Potential.
• (b) Please describe how actin-binding sites are made
available for cross-bridging with myosin heads during
contraction.
• (b) Ca++ binds to tropomyosin, and this slides the tropomyosin
rods away from the binding sites.
• The region where thick and thin filaments overlap has a dense
appearance, as there is little space between the filaments. This zone
where thin and thick filaments overlap is very important to muscle
contraction, as it is the site where filament movement starts.
• Thin filaments, anchored at their ends by the Z-discs, do not extend
completely into the central region that only contains thick filaments,
anchored at their bases at a spot called the M-line.
• A myofibril is composed of many sarcomeres running along its
length; thus, myofibrils and muscle cells contract as the sarcomeres
contra
The Sliding Filament Model of Contraction

• When signaled by a motor neuron, a skeletal muscle fiber

contracts as the thin filaments are pulled and then slide
past the thick filaments within the fiber’s sarcomeres. This
process is known as the sliding filament model of muscle
contraction .The sliding can only occur when myosin-
binding sites on the actin filaments are exposed by a
series of steps that begins with Ca++ entry into the
sarcoplasm
• Tropomyosin is a protein that winds around the chains of
the actin filament and covers the myosin-binding sites to
prevent actin from binding to myosin. Tropomyosin binds
to troponin to form a troponin-tropomyosin complex. The
troponin-tropomyosin complex prevents the myosin
“heads” from binding to the active sites on the actin
microfilaments. Troponin also has a binding site for Ca+
+
ions.
• To initiate muscle contraction, tropomyosin has to expose the
myosin-binding site on an actin filament to allow cross-bridge
formation between the actin and myosin microfilaments.
• The first step in the process of contraction is for Ca++ to bind
to troponin so that tropomyosin can slide away from the
binding sites on the actin strands.
• This allows the myosin heads to bind to these exposed
binding sites and form cross-bridges. The thin filaments are
then pulled by the myosin heads to slide past the thick
filaments toward the center of the sarcomere. But each head
can only pull a very short distance before it has reached its
limit and must be “re-cocked” before it can pull again, a step
that requires ATP.
 ATP and Muscle Contraction

• For thin filaments to continue to slide past thick filaments

during muscle contraction, myosin heads must pull the
actin at the binding sites, detach, re-cock, attach to more
binding sites, pull, detach, re-cock, etc. This repeated
movement is known as the cross-bridge cycle.
• Cross-bridge formation occurs when the myosin head attaches to the
actin while adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and inorganic phosphate
(Pi) are still bound to myosin
• Pi is then released, causing myosin to form a stronger attachment to
the actin, after which the myosin head moves toward the M-line,
pulling the actin along with it. As actin is pulled, the filaments move
approximately 10 nm toward the M-line. This movement is called
the power stroke, as movement of the thin filament occurs at
this .In the absence of ATP, the myosin head will not detach from
actin.
• One part of the myosin head attaches to the binding site
on the actin, but the head has another binding site for
ATP. ATP binding causes the myosin head to detach from
the actin
• After this occurs, ATP is converted to ADP and Pi by the
intrinsic ATPase activity of myosin. The energy released
during ATP hydrolysis changes the angle of the myosin
head into a cocked position The myosin head is now in
position for further movement.
• When the myosin head is cocked, myosin is in a high-
energy configuration. This energy is expended as the
myosin head moves through the power stroke, and at the
end of the power stroke, the myosin head is in a low-
energy position.
• After the power stroke, ADP is released; however, the
formed cross-bridge is still in place, and actin and myosin
are bound together. As long as ATP is available, it readily
attaches to myosin, the cross-bridge cycle can recur, and
muscle contraction can continue.
• Loss of ATP that results in the rigor mortis observed soon
after someone dies.
• With no further ATP production possible, there is no ATP
available for myosin heads to detach from the actin-
binding sites, so the cross-bridges stay in place, causing
the rigidity in the skeletal muscles.
• Large Motor Unit-It is the number of skeletal muscle
fibers supplied by a single motor neuron.
• A large motor unit has one neuron supplying many
skeletal muscle fibers for gross movements, like the
Temporalis muscle, where 1000 fibers are supplied
by one neuron.
• A small motor has one neuron supplying few skeletal
muscle fibers for very fine movements, like the
extraocular eye muscles, where six fibers are
supplied by one neuron.
 Think
• Why is the neurotransmitter acetylcholine degraded after
binding to its receptor?

• Answer:?
• What would happen to skeletal muscle if the epimysium
were destroyed?
• Muscles would lose their integrity during powerful movements,
resulting in muscle damage.
• What are the five primary functions of skeletal muscle?
• What are the opposite roles of voltage-gated sodium
channels and voltage-gated potassium channels?
 Review
• Describe how tendons facilitate body movement
• When a muscle contracts, the force of movement is transmitted
through the tendon, which pulls on the bone to produce skeletal
movement.
• .
 Review
• What are the five primary functions of skeletal muscle?
• Produce movement of the skeleton, maintain posture and body
position, support soft tissues, encircle openings of the digestive,
urinary, and other tracts, and maintain body temperature
• What are the opposite roles of voltage-gated sodium
channels and voltage-gated potassium channels?

• The opening of voltage-gated sodium channels, followed by the

influx of Na+, transmits an Action Potential after the membrane has
sufficiently depolarized. The delayed opening of potassium
channels allows K+ to exit the cell, to repolarize the membrane.