AKHIL KUMAR S, AP, ECE

MODULE-5

AKHIL KUMAR S
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
ECE
MLMCE
 X-RAY IMAGING
AKHIL KUMAR S, AP, ECE

X-rays are electromagnetic radiations with a much shorter

wavelength than radio waves or visible light.
It is beyond the range of ultraviolet light that the X-rays begin.
The shorter the wavelength, the stronger is the penetration
power of the X-rays.
X-rays normally move in a straight line like light.
These are used for both diagnostic as well as therapeutic
purposes.
When they travel through the body of the patient, a portion of
them will be either absorbed or scattered, which depends
on the density of the medium.
 It is, therefore, greater in metal than in bone, greater in bone
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than in soft tissues and greater in soft tissues than in air.

The X-rays, thus absorbed, interact with the atoms of the
matter and dislodge electrons.
This process is called ionization and X-rays are hence
referred to as ionizing radiation.
The ionization due to X-rays has a therapeutic effect as well as
possible harmful effects.
The image of intensity distribution of the X-rays that have
passed through the body of a patient help to visualize the
internal structures of the body.
 Properties Of X-rays
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1. Highly penetrating invisible rays

2. Electrically neutral
3. Poly-energetic
4. Liberate heat on passing through the matter
5. Travel ordinarily in straight lines
6. Travel with the speed of light in vacuum
7. Ionize gases indirectly
8. Cannot be focused by lens
9. Affect photographic film
10. Produce chemical and biological change
 Properties of X-rays
The X-rays in the medical diagnostic region have wavelength of the order of
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10-l0m.They propagate with a speed of 3 x 1010 cm/ s and are unaffected by

electric and magnetic fields.
They have short wavelength and extremely high energy.
X-rays are able to penetrate through materials which readily absorb and reflect
visible light.
X-rays are absorbed when passing through matter. The extent of absorption
depends upon the density of the matter.
X-rays produce ionization in gases and influence the electric properties of
liquids and solids. The ionizing property is made use of in the construction of
radiation-measuring instruments.
X-rays also produce fluorescence in certain materials to help them emit light.
Fluoroscopic screens and intensifying screens have been constructed on the
basis of this property.
 Production of X-rays
X-rays are produced whenever electrons collide at very high speed
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with matter.
The energy possessed by the electrons appears from the site of the
collision as a parcel of energy in the form of highly penetrating
electromagnetic waves (X-rays) of different wavelengths, which
together form a continuous spectrum.
An X-ray generator is a device that produces X-rays.
An X-ray generator generally contains an X-ray tube to produce the
X-rays. Possibly, radioisotopes can also be used to generate X-rays.
An X-ray tube is a simple vacuum tube that contains a cathode,
which directs a stream of electrons into a vacuum, and an anode,
which collects the electrons and is made of tungsten to evacuate
the heat generated by the collision.
 When the electrons collide with the target, about 1% of the
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resulting energy is emitted as X-rays, with the remaining 99%

released as heat.
The kinetic energy of the electrons impinging on the target
is converted into X-rays.
The tube will emit X-rays in all directions and protection
needs to be provided except where the useful beam emerges
from the tube.
An X-ray generator also needs to contain a cooling system
to cool the anode (water or oil recirculating systems).
In order to contain the cooling oil and meet the above-
mentioned requirements, a metal container is provided for
completely surrounding the tube.
Such a container is known as a ‘shield’.
 X-rays are produced specially constructed glass tube, which
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basically comprises,
(i) a source for the production electrons,
(ii) a energy source to accelerate the electrons,
(iii) a free electron path,
(iv) a mean t focusing the electron beam and
(v) a device to stop the electrons.
Stationary mode tubes and rotating anode tubes are the two
main types of X-ray tubes:
 The principle of X-ray Production
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AKHIL KUMAR S, AP, ECE

X-ray Machine
 The main part of an X-ray machine is the X-ray generator.
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In the X-ray generator, the X-rays are produced in the X-ray
tube by bombardment of an anode target with fast moving
electrons obtained from a red-hot cathode.
The characteristics of the X-ray beam depend on the anode-
cathode voltage and temperature of the electron emitting
cathode.
The voltages used may vary from 20 KV to several
megavolts.
The currents are less than a few hundred mill amperes.
The X-ray tube for operation requires a high voltage DC
source and a low AC voltage source for filament heating.
 A timing unit and switches operated by the timing unit are
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provided so that the duration of the X-ray beam can be

controlled.
Thus, there are three different controls on the control panel
of an X-ray machine.
The tube voltage expressed in KVP (Kilovolts-peak),
determine the hardness or penetration power of the X-ray
beam.
The beam current, expressed in milli amperes (mA),
determines the intensity of the X-ray beam.
The third control determines the time (expressed in
seconds) that the beam is turned on for X-ray photos.
 Parts
1. X-Ray tube.
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2. High Tension Supply

3. Collimator
4. Patient Table.
5. Grid.
6. Radiographic film

X ray Tube
It is an important component of x-ray machine which is
inaccessible as it is contained in a protective housing.
It is a vacuum tube.
There are two primary parts. Cathode and Anode
 Operating Console
It is an apparatus in X-Ray machine that allows to control
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the x-ray tube current and voltage.

The Console Controls are: -
 1. Voltage compensator.
 2. kV Meter.
 3. mA Meter.
 4. Exposure time.

Voltage Compensator
Because of variations in power distribution to the
hospital and in power consumption by the various sections
of the hospital, the voltage to the x-ray unit may vary by
5%, which will result in large variations in x-ray output.
 High Tension Supply with Rectifier
The power supplied to X-ray machine is delivered to a
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special transformer called an Autotransformer.

It works on the principle of electromagnetic induction but is
very different from conventional transformer.
The purpose to use the Autotransformer is to overcome
induction losses.
A kV selector switch enables to change voltage between
exposures.
 The voltage is measured with the help of a kV meter.
The exposure switch controls the timer and thus the duration
of the application of kV.
To compensate for mains voltage variations, a voltage
compensator is used in the circuit.
 A preferred method of providing high voltage dc to the anode
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of the x-ray tube is by using a bridge rectifier using four valve

tubes or solid state rectifiers
Moving coil meters are used for making current I (mA)
measurements, for shorter exposures, a mAs meter is used
which measures the product I of mA and time in seconds.
Collimator
The Collimator is attached to the x-ray tube below the glass
window where the useful beam is emitted.
Lead shutters are used to restrict the beam.
Its purpose is to minimize field of view, to avoid un-
necessary exposure by using lead plates.
 Grid:
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By virtue of function and material, collimator and grid are

same but they have different location.
It is made up of lead. It is located just after patient.
It is used to destroy scattered radiation from the body.
Radiographic Film:
Two types of x-ray photon are responsible for density,
contrast and image on a radiograph.
Those that pass through the patient without interacting and
those that are scattered in the patient through compton
interaction.
Together these x-rays that exit from the patient and intersect
the film are called Remnant x-rays.
 X-rays to visualize the inner structure of the body
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 The region of the body to be imaged is positioned between the X-
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ray tube and the imaging device.

The X-ray tube projects the shadow of the structures inside the
body on the imaging device.
For the image to be sharp, the part of the body being X-rayed must
be as close as possible to the imaging device while the X-ray tube
is positioned as far as possible.
The instantaneous picture obtained is useful for a number of
diagnostic purposes, but does not allow a study of the dynamics of
the living system.
For a study of the dynamics of the system, low intensity X-rays
must be used.
The beam, after passing through the part to be examined, strikes a
 The fluorescent material emits visible light when the X-ray
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beam strikes and as a result the image becomes visible to

naked eye.
X rays normally cannot be detected directly by the human
senses.
Thus 3 different techniques are in common use
Fluoroscopy
X-ray films
Image intensifiers
 Applications Of X-rays In Medicine
AKHIL KUMAR S, AP, ECE

1. X-rays are used in medicine for medical analysis.

Dentists use them to find complications, cavities and
impacted teeth. Soft body tissues are transparent to the
waves.
Bones and teeth block the rays and show up as white on the
black background.
2. A mammogram:
(Also called a mammography exam) is a safe, low-dose x-
ray of the breast.
A high-quality mammogram is the most effective tool for
detecting breast cancer early.
Using a low-dose x-ray, the mammogram machine takes a
snapshot of the inside of a woman’s breast.
 The machine holds and compresses the breasts so that
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images at different angles can be taken.

Doctors and nurses examine these snapshots, looking for
signs of abnormalities such as lumps, be tumors.
3. Skeletal system:
A standard radiograph is usually the first course of action
when a patient is suffering from a suspected bone injury.
The excellent natural contrast provided by bone produces
clear images with good resolution.
Two views at right angles to each other are generally
required and can lead to the diagnosis of fractures,
dislocations, spinal injuries and so on.
 4. The chest:
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A standard chest X-ray is the commonest means of detecting

lung cancer and other abnormalities
Difficulties sometimes arise due to inevitable obstruction of
the heart.
5. Circulatory system:
An artificial contrast medium, typically an organic iodine
compound, is injected into the blood vessel to be examined.
The structure and effective flow diameter of both arteries and
veins can be examined, allowing the diagnosis of blood vessel
blockages and heart disease
 6. Dental studies:
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Most dental practices now have small X-ray units, to

investigate problems with the overcrowding or uneven
growth of teeth, particularly in juveniles, or with the
growth of wisdom teeth.
Surgery or orthodental treatment may then be
recommended.
7. Foreign bodies:
It is amazing what people, particularly children, will
swallow.
A standard radiograph can help to identify the shape and
position of such objects to assist with their removal.
 Uses Of X-rays
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The uses of X-rays in the fields of medicine and dentistry

have been extremely important.
Examples might include the observation of the broken bones
and torn ligaments of football players.
The detection of breast cancer in women.
The discovery of cavities and impacted wisdom teeth.
Since X-rays can be produced with energies sufficient to ionize
the atoms making up human tissue, it can be used to kill the
affected cells like cancer cells.
Demonstrates the difference between bone density and soft
tissue.
 COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY
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There are two main limitations of using conventional X-rays to

examine internal structures of the body.
Firstly, the super imposition of the 3-dimensional information
onto a single plane makes diagnosis confusing and often
difficult.
Secondly, the photographic film usually used for making
radiographs has a limited dynamic range and, therefore, only
objects that have large variations in X-ray absorption relative
to their surroundings will cause sufficient contrast differences on
the film to be distinguished by the eyes.
Thus, the details of bony structures can be clearly seen, it is
difficult to identify the shape and composition of soft tissue
organs accurately.
 In such situations, growths and abnormalities within tissue only show
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a very small contrast difference on the film and consequently, it is

extremely difficult to detect them.
The problem becomes even more serious while carrying out studies of
the brain due to its overall shielding of the soft tissue by the dense
bone of the skull.
Various techniques have been applied in an effort to overcome these
limitations, but the most powerful technique which has shown
dramatic results is computed tomography.
Tomography is a term derived from the Greek word tomos‘, meaning
is to write a slice or section‘ and is well understood in radiographic
circles.
Conventional tomography was developed to reduce the super-
imposition effect of simple radiographs.
 In computed tomography(CT), the picture is made by
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viewing the patient via X-ray imaging from numerous

angles, by mathematically reconstructing the detailed
structures and displaying the reconstructed image on a
video monitor.
The X-ray tube and photographic film are moved in
synchronization so that one plane of the patient under
examination remains in focus, while all other planes are
blurred.
Computed tomography enabled radiologists to distinguish, for
the first time, between different types of brain tissue, and
even between normal and coagulated blood.
 Basic Principle And Image Reconstruction
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Computed tomography (CT) scanning, also known as

computerized axial tomography (CAT) scanning, is a
diagnostic imaging procedure that uses X-rays to build
cross-sectional images ("slices") of the body.
Cross-sections are reconstructed from measurements of
attenuation coefficients of X-ray beams in the volume of the
object studied.
CT is based on the fundamental principle that the density of the
tissue passed by the X-ray beam can be measured from the
calculation of the attenuation coefficient.
Using this principle, CT allows the reconstruction of the
density of the body, by two-dimensional section
perpendicular to the axis of the acquisition system.
 For monochromatic X-ray beam, the tissue attenuation
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characteristics can be described by,

 Io = Incident radiation intensity

 It = Transmitted intensity
 x = Thickness of tissue
 μ = Characteristic attenuation coefficient of tissue

Attenuation values of the X-ray beam are recorded and

data used to build a 3D representation of the scanned
object/tissue.
Unlike X-ray radiography, the detectors of the CT scanner
do not produce an image. They measure the transmission of a
thin beam of X-rays through a full scan of the body.
 The image of that section is taken from different angles, and
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this allows retrieving the information on the depth (in the

third dimension).
In order to obtain tomographic images of the patient from
the data in "raw" scan, the computer uses complex
mathematical algorithms for image reconstruction
The image by the CT scanner is a digital image and consists
of a square matrix of elements (pixel), each of which
represents a voxel (volume element) of the tissue of the
patient.
In conclusion, a measurement made by a detector CT is
proportional to the sum of the attenuation coefficients.
 X-rays incident on patient from different directions.
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They are attenuated by different amounts, as indicated by

the different transmitted X-ray intensities
 SYSTEM COMPONENTS
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Scanning system: This takes suitable readings for a

picture to be reconstructed, and includes X-ray source
and detectors.
Processing unit: This converts these readings into
intelligible picture information.
Viewing part: It presents this information in visual form
and includes other manipulative aids to assist diagnosis.
Storage unit: This enables the information to be stored
for subsequent analysis.
 The technique of producing CT images
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 The X-ray source and detectors are mounted opposite each
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other in a rigid gantry with the patient lying in between, and

by moving one or both of these around and across the relevant
sections, which is how the measurements are made.
The X-ray tube and the detector are rigidly coupled to each
other.
The system executes translational and rotational movement
and trans radiates the patient from various angular projections.
With the aid of collimators, pencil thin beam of X-ray is
produced.
A detector converts the X-radiation into an electrical
signal.
Measuring electronics then amplify the electrical signals and
convert them into digital values.
 A computer then processes these values and computes them into
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a matrix-line density distribution pattern which is

reproduced on a video monitor as a pattern of gray shade.
The detectors absorb the X-ray photons and emit the energy
as visible light.
This is converted to electrons by a photo-multiplier tube and
then amplified.
 Analog outputs from these tubes go through signal conditioning
circuitry that amplifies, and shapes the signals.
A relatively simple analog-to-digital converter then prepares
the signals for the computer.
After the initial pre-processing, the final image is put onto the
system disc.
This allows for direct viewing on the operator’s console.
 Image Reconstruction
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The formation of a CT image is a distinct three phase process.

1.The scanning phase produces data, but not an image.
2.The reconstruction phase processes the acquired data and
forms a digital image.
3.Digital-to analog conversion phase: The visible and
displayed analog image (shades of gray) is produced by the
digital-to analog conversion phase.
 1. The scanning phase
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During the scanning phase a fan-shaped x-ray beam is

scanned around the body.
The amount of x-radiation that penetrates the body along
each individual ray (pathway) through the body is measured
by the detectors that intercept the x-ray beam after it passes
through the body.
The projection of the fan-shaped x-ray beam from one
specific x-ray tube focal spot position produces one view.
Many views projected from around the patient's body
are required in order to acquire the necessary data to
reconstruct an image.
 Each view produces one "profile" or line of data.
The complete scan produces a complete data set that contains
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sufficient information for the reconstruction of an image.

 In principle, one scan produces data for one slice image.
 2. Image Reconstruction Phase
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Image reconstruction is the phase in which the scan data

set is processed to produce an image.
The image is digital and consist of a matrix of pixels.
Filtered back projection is the reconstruction method used
in CT.
"Filtered" refers to the use of the digital image processing
algorithms that are used to improve image quality or change
certain image quality characteristics, such as detail and
noise.
"Back projection" is the actual process used to produce
or "reconstruct" the image.
 Applications of CT
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1. Unlike other medical imaging techniques, such as conventional x-

ray imaging (radiography), CT enables direct imaging and
differentiation of soft tissue structures, such as liver, lung tissue,
and fat.
2. CT is especially useful in searching for large space occupying
lesions, tumours and metastasis and can not only reveal their
presence, but also the size, spatial location and extent of a tumour.
3. CT imaging of the head and brain can detect tumours, show
blood clots and blood vessel defects, show enlarged ventricles
(caused by a build up of cerebrospinal fluid) and image other
abnormalities such as those of the nerves or muscles of the eye.
 4. Due to the short scan times of 500 milliseconds to a few
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seconds, CT can be used for all anatomic regions, including

those susceptible to patient motion and breathing
5. CT has been the basis for interventional work like CT
guided biopsy and minimally invasive therapy.
6. CT images are also used as basis for planning radiotherapy
cancer treatment.
CT is also often used to follow the course of cancer treatment
to determine how the tumour is responding to treatment.
 Types of Scanning Systems
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First Generation-Parallel Beam Geometry

In the basic scanning process, a collimated X-ray beam
passes through the body and its attenuation is detected by
a sensor that moves on a gantry along with the X-ray
tube.
Pencil beam translated across patient to obtain set of
parallel projection measurements at one angle
The tube and detector move in a straight line, sampling the
data 180 times.
At the end of the travel, a 1° tilt is made and a new linear
scan begins.
This assembly travels 180°around the patient’s position.
 It is essential for the patient to keep still during the entire
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scan period and for this reason, the early scanners were
limited in their use to only brain studies.
 Second Generation—Fan Beam, Multiple Detectors:
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An improved version of 1st generation arrangement consists

of a multiple detectors and a fan beam of X-rays.
This system effectively takes several profiles with each
traverse and thus permits greater index angles.
For example, by using a 10° fan beam, it is possible to take
10 profiles, at 1° intervals, with each traverse and then
index through 10° before taking the next set of profiles.
This method has permitted a reduction in the scan time,
and at the rate of approximately 1s for each traverse, it
has led to the systems operating in the 18-20 s range.
X-ray source emits radiation over a large angle, the
efficiency of measuring projections was greatly improved
AKHIL KUMAR S, AP, ECE
 Third Generation—Fan Beam, Rotating Detectors:
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Using a fan-shaped beam and an array of detectors,

larger steps can be taken and the scanning process
speeded up linear scanning movement can be avoided by
using a sufficiently wide fan-shaped X-ray beam which
encompasses the whole object cross-section.
X ray tube is collimated to wide x ray beam (fan shaped)
directed toward an arc shaped row of detectors
Tube and detector array rotate around patient
Different projections are obtained during rotation by
pulsing x-ray source or by sampling the detector at very
high rate
 A multiple detector system mechanically tied to the tube
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which permits a simultaneous measurement of the whole

absorption profile in one projection direction.
 Fourth Generation- Stationary detector ring & rotating X
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ray tube
Reduced motion resulted in reduction in complexity
Stationary detector requires a larger acceptance angle for
radiation, and is therefore more sensitive to scattered
radiation than the 3rd generation geometry
Require large number of detector cells and electronic
channels to achieve the same spatial resolution
Larger fan beam and Shorter scanning time
 Fifth Generation
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X-ray tube is a large ring that circles patient, opposed to

detector ring
X-ray detector and tube anode are stationary
Anode, is a very large semi-circular ring that forms an arc
around the patient scan circle
Source of X rays is moved around the same path as a fourth
generation CT scanner by steering an electron beam around
the X ray anode
Used for cardiac tomographic imaging
It is capable of 50 - millisecond scan times and can produce
17 CT slices/second
 Sixth Generation(Spiral /Helical Scanning)
This is a scanning technique in which the X-ray tube
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rotates continuously around the patient while the patient is

continuously translated through the fan beam.
This operation is often referred to as helix, spiral, volume, or
three-dimensional CT scanning.
This technique has been developed for acquiring images
with faster scan times and to obtain fast multiple scans for
three-dimensional imaging to obtain and evaluate the
volume at different locations.
Spiral scanning technique, which causes the focal spot to
follow a spiral path around the patient.
Multiple images are acquired while the patient is moved
through the gantry in a smooth continuous motion rather
AKHIL KUMAR S, AP, ECE
 Ultrasonic Imaging Systems
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Ultrasound is a form of energy which consists of mechanical

vibrations and the frequencies of which are so high that they
are above the range of human hearing.
Most biomedical applications of ultrasound employ
frequencies in the range 1 to 15 M Hz.
Velocities of ultrasound in soft tissues and bones are 1570
m/s and 3600 m/s respectively.
Ultrasonic diagnostic aids are based on the echo aspect and
the Doppler shift aspect.
Ultrasonic therapeutic aids are based on the thermal effects
and cavitation effects developed during the irradiation of
ultrasound on the body.
 Ultrasonography is a technique by which ultrasonic energy is
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used to detect the state of the internal body organs.

Bursts of ultrasonic energy are transmitted from
piezoelectric transducer through the skin and into internal
anatomy.
When this energy strikes an interface between two tissues of
different acoustical impedance, reflections (echoes) are
returned to the transducer.
The transducer converts these reflections to an electrical
signal.
This electrical signal is amplified and displayed on an
oscilloscope at a distance proportional to the depth of the
interface.
 Ultrasonic diagnosis differs from X-ray diagnosis in that no
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shadow images are normally obtained and the cross

sectional or linear images are obtained through parts of the
body.
Ultrasonic imaging is safe since ultrasonography uses
mechanical energy at a level which is not harmful to human
tissues.
So the ultrasonography is called a non-invasive technique.
 Basic Pulse Echo System
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 The transmitter generates a train of short duration pulses
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at a repetition frequency determined by the Pulse Repetition

Frequency (PRF) generator.
These are converted into corresponding pulses of ultrasonic
waves by a piezoelectric crystal acting as the transmitting
transducer.
The echoes from the target or discontinuity are picked up
by the same transducer and amplified suitably for display on
a cathode ray tube.
 Transducer
The transducer consists of a Piezo-electric crystal which
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generates and detects ultrasonic pulses.

When the transducer is excited at its resonance frequency,
it will continue to vibrate mechanically
The probes are designed to achieve the highest sensitivity
and penetration, optimum focal characteristics and the best
possible resolution.
Pulse Repetition Frequency Generator:
This unit produces a train of pulses which control the
sequence of events in the rest of the equipment.
The PRF is usually kept between 500 Hz to 3 KHz.
 The width of the output pulse from the PRF generator
AKHIL KUMAR S, AP, ECE

should be very small, preferably of the order of a micro-

second, to generate short duration ultrasonic pulse.
It is a practice to use one Astable circuit to generate a
train of pulses with the required frequency and then to
use them to trigger a mono-stable multi-vibrator which
produces pulses of the required width.
Transmitter
The transmitting crystal is driven by a pulse from the PRF
generator and is made to trigger an SCR circuit which
discharges a capacitor through the piezo-electric crystal
in the probe to generate an ultrasonic signal.
 Receiver
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The function of the receiver is to obtain the signal from

the transducer and to extract from it the best possible
representation of an echo pattern.
Wide band amplifier
The echo-signals received at the receiving transducer are
in the form of modulated carrier frequency and may be as
small as a few microvolts.
These signals require sufficient amplification before being
fed to a detector circuit and this is achieved in a wide-
band amplifier, which is wide enough to faithfully
reproduce the received echoes.
 Swept gain control
The receiving amplifier can only accept a limited range of
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input signals without overloading and distortion.

Abrupt changes in tissue properties that shift the acoustical
impedance can cause the echo amplitudes to vary over a
wide dynamic range
To avoid this, the amplifier gain is adjusted to
compensate for these variations.
This gain adjustment is controlled with swept gain
control.
Detector
After the amplification, the echo signals are rectified in
the detector circuit.
 The detector could be conventional diode-capacitor type
with an inductive filter
AKHIL KUMAR S, AP, ECE

In this rectification process, the negative half cycles in the

echo voltage waveforms are converted into positive half
cycles.
This is followed by a demodulation circuit.
The output of the demodulator circuit is in the form of
an envelope of the echo signal.
Video amplifier
The signal requires further amplification after its
demodulation in the detector circuit before it can be given to
the plates of the CRT.
The most commonly used video amplifier is the RC
coupled type, having an inductance in series with the
collector load.
 Time delay unit
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The time delay unit is sometimes required for special

applications.
Time marker
The time marker produces pulses that are a known time
apart and, therefore, correspond to a known distance apart
in human tissues.
Display
After amplification in the video amplifier, the signal is
given to the Y plates of the CRT.
Three display formats are
A-mode display, B-mode display and T-M mode (or M
mode) display.
 Propagation Of Ultrasonic Through
Tissues And Reflections
AKHIL KUMAR S, AP, ECE

 Ultrasound waves are vibrations or disturbances consisting of

alternating zones of compression and rarefaction in a physical
medium such as gas, liquid, or solid matter
 All waves, including both acoustical and electromagnetic possess
three related attributes: Frequency (F), Wavelength (X), and
Velocity (V).
 The two forms of waves are
 1. Longitudinal Propagation
 The waves propagate in the same direction as the zones of
compression and rarefaction.
 2. Transverse Propagation
 The waves propagate in a direction orthogonal (at right
angles) to the direction of the zones of compression and
rarefaction.
 Ultrasonic Reflection and Transmission at Tissue Interface
AKHIL KUMAR S, AP, ECE
 Reflection of Ultrasound
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Ultrasound travels freely through fluid and soft tissues.

However, ultrasound bounces back (is reflected back) as
echoes when it hits a more solid (dense) surface.
For example, the ultrasound will travel freely though blood in a
heart chamber. But, when it hits a solid valve, a lot of the
ultrasound echoes back.
Another example is that when ultrasound travels though bile in
a gallbladder it will echo back strongly if it hits a solid
gallstone.
So, as ultrasound 'hits' different structures of different
density in the body, it sends back echoes of varying
strength.
 Ultrasonography uses a probe containing multiple acoustic
AKHIL KUMAR S, AP, ECE

transducers to send pulses of sound into a material.

Whenever a sound wave encounters a material with a
different density (acoustical impedance), part of the sound
wave is reflected back to the probe and is detected as an
echo.
The time it takes for the echo to travel back to the probe is
measured and used to calculate the depth of the tissue
interface causing the echo.
The greater the difference between acoustic impedances, the
larger the echo is.
If the pulse hits gases or solids, the density difference is so
great that most of the acoustic energy is reflected and it
becomes impossible to see deeper.
 Reflection and refraction of waves
AKHIL KUMAR S, AP, ECE

At the boundary between two zones of different density, some

of the wave energy is reflected back into the original
medium, and some propagates into the second medium but
is refracted (i.e.. changes its direction of travel).
If the incident wave impinges on the surface or boundary at
an angle of 90 degrees (i.e.. it is coincident with the normal
line), it will be reflected back on itself.
But if the angle is other than 90 degrees, then the reflected
wave will travel away from the surface at the same angle.
Refraction phenomena affect the portion of the incident wave
that enters the second medium.
 Display Types Or Imaging Modes
AKHIL KUMAR S, AP, ECE

The reflected echoes are now displayed on the screen as a

useful image.
The various modes are
A Mode
B Mode
M mode or T-M Mode
 A-mode (Amplitude Mode) Display
AKHIL KUMAR S, AP, ECE

In the A-mode presentation of ultrasound images, echoes

returning from the body are displayed as signals on an
oscilloscope.
A mode means amplitude modulation
This mode displays the amplitude of a sampled voltage
signal for a single sound wave as a function of time.
 A-scan mode uses a stationary transducer to fire a pulse
into tissue.
The oscilloscope scans time along the horizontal axis and
plots the signal amplitude along the vertical axis.
In this mode, the reflected echoes are displayed as vertical
spikes.
 The tissue at the interface with the transducer will produce
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some near-field scatter immediately to the right of the

transmit spike.
Other spikes represent reflections from targets within the
tissue.
A-scans can be used in order to measure distances.
A-scans only give one-dimensional information and
therefore are not useful for imaging.
For A-scan applications, the CRT is usually of the electrostatic
deflection type.
The cathode ray tube should preferably be a flat face type
to eliminate screen curvature error.
 B-mode (Brightness) Display
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B scan means brightness modulation.

B-mode (Brightness) imaging is the same as A-mode, except
that brightness is used to represent the amplitude of the
sampled signal.
The reflective echoes are showed as dots on the screen
B scan can be used to take an image of a cross-section
through the body.
The transducer is swept across the area and the time taken
for pulses to return is used to determine distances, which
are plotted as a series of dots on the image.
B mode imaging is performed by sweeping the transmitted
sound wave over the plane to produce a 2D image
 A-Mode display is very difficult to interpret when many
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echoes are present simultaneously and often potentially useful

information is wasted.
The B-scan mode may use the same time base as the A-scan
but plots the strength of the returning signal as changes in
brightness, i.e., a strong reflection is brighter than the
weaker reflection.
When the transducer is mechanically scanned back and forth,
successive images are built up allowing a two-dimensional (2-
D) view of the underlying structure.
Again, the strength of the reflection is graphed by the
brightness of the cathode ray tube display.
 Types of Scans
1. Linear Scan.
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The most common scan used for abdominal studies

A linear scan is when the ultrasonic transducer remains
parallel to the surface of the object being examined and
the sound beam is perpendicular to the transducer
movement.
Only the location of the transducer is changed but the angle
of the beam is held constant.
2. Sector Scan
The most common scan used in echocardiography
 The scan is made by rocking the transducer about a
fixed point such that the sound beam covers a sector.
3. Compound scanning
It is a combination of linear and sector scans.
 M-mode (Motion) Display
AKHIL KUMAR S, AP, ECE

In M-mode (motion mode) ultrasound, pulses are emitted in

quick succession each time, either an A-mode or B mode
image is taken,
M-mode (Motion) display refers to scanning a single line in
the object and then displaying the resulting amplitudes
successively.
Because of its high pulse frequency this is useful in assessing
rates and motion and is used extensively in cardiac and
foetal cardiac imaging.
M-mode is a technique that uses B-mode information to
display the echoes from a moving organ, such as the
myocardium and valve leaflets, from a fixed transducer
position and beam direction on the patient.
 M-mode can provide excellent temporal resolution of motion
AKHIL KUMAR S, AP, ECE

patterns, allowing the evaluation of the function of heart valves

and other cardiac anatomy.
Only anatomy along a single line through the patient is
represented by the M-mode technique.
If one of the echo sources is a moving structure, then the echo
dots of light from that structure will also move back and forth.
If the dots are made to move with an electronic sweep, from
bottom to the top of the screen at a pre-selected rate of speed,
the moving dots will trace out the motion pattern of the moving
structure. This display is known as M-mode display.
AKHIL KUMAR S, AP, ECE

REAL-TIME ULTRASONIC IMAGING SYSTEMS

One of the serious limiting factors in B-scanning is the length
of time taken to complete a scan.
This results in blurring and distortion of the image due to
organ movement, as well as being tedious for the operator.
Elimination of motion artifact is important in conventional B-
scanning but is critical if rapidly moving areas such as the
chambers of the heart are to be made visible.
Rapid scanning techniques have been developed to meet
these needs. The approaches used include fast physical
movement of a single transducer
 Requirements of Real Time Ultrasonic Imaging
Systems
AKHIL KUMAR S, AP, ECE

High resolution
High resolution or the ability of the system to resolve fine
spatial dimensions is a key performance requirement.
Long range
The required depth range varies considerably for
different anatomical studies.
 For example, a range of 25-30 cm is desirable for
abdominal and obstetrical studies.
 For cardiac studies, the distance from the chest wall to the
posterior heart wall is 15 cm or more.
 Adequate field of view
AKHIL KUMAR S, AP, ECE

The field of view should be large enough to display the

entire region under examination and to provide a useful
perspective view of an organ of interest.
Sufficiently high frame rate and high detectivity
In real-time imaging systems, the frame rate (the rate at
which the image is retreated) should be rapid enough to
resolve the important motions and to obtain the image
without undesirable smearing.
Most of these requirements arc met with a frame rate of
about 30 frames/s.
 Detectivity
AKHIL KUMAR S, AP, ECE

It is the ability of an imaging system to effectively

capture, process and display the very wide dynamic
range of signals which may, in turn, help to detect the
image or other abnormal structure or process.
Poor system detectivity manifests itself in lack of fidelity or
picture quality which is often apparent in the visual displays
of ultrasonic images.
 Applications Of Ultrasonography
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In neurology to find any brain tumour

In ophthalmology to find any foreign objects in eye
In cardiology to determine the cross-section of the heart and
to determine heart rate.
In gynaecology to monitor the foetus growth and to indicate
the presence of twins
To identify the breast cancer