Telecommunication

fundamentals

Module 1:
Signal Transmission
Prof. M. Samy El-Hennawey
 Transmission Terminology

Transmitted signal Received signal

The goal of communication engineering theories is to

transmit signal from a transmitter to a receiver with an
acceptable quality
A physical medium is an inherent part of a communications system and
it is classified into:
 Guided - Wires (copper cables, optical fibers)

 Unguided - Wireless radio spectra

 Signals
 Data To be transmitted must be transformed to
electromagnetic signals
Analog and digital Signals

 Analog signals can have an infinite number of amplitude values in a

range.
 Digital signals can have only a limited number of amplitude values.
 Signals
 Thereare two domains used to describe signals in communications
engineering:
1) Time-domain 2) Frequency-domain

Time Domain
 Thetime-domain plot shows changes in signal amplitude with respect to
time.

f(t)

t
-T
T
noperiodic Signal
periodic Signal
 Signals
Frequency Domains and Spectrum
A frequency-domain plot shows the power (its square root) w.r.t. the
frequency
 The spectrum of a signal is the range of frequencies that it contains

For periodic signal: it is obtained using Fourier Series coefficient

1  jn0t
cn 
To To
x (t ) e dt

cn
c 2 c2
c 1 c c1
c n o cn

-nfo -2fo -fo fo 2f nf [nfo]

o o
 Signals
Frequency Domains and Spectrum
For nonperiodic signals: it is obtained using Fourier Transform

F ( j )  f (t )e  jt dt


F ( )

-40 -30 -20 -10 10 20 30 kHz

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 Signals
From the spectrum point of view, signals can be classified into:

Low pass Signals Band pass Signals

They are the signals for which They are the signals for which
the spectrum is concentrated the spectrum is concentrated
around zero frequency around a non zero frequency

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 Signal Power and Energy
 Energy and power are two measurable parameters for the signal strength.

Energy of Signals

 Energy is accumulation of absolute square of the signal magnitudes.

 For continuous time signals:


2
E x   f (t ) dt

 For discrete time signals:
  2

E x  f [n]   Cn
2

 n 

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 Power and Energy
Parseval's Theorem
  
2 1 2 2


f (t ) dt 
2 F ( ) d  F ( f ) df
 

Energy Calculation In the frequency domain

using Parseval's Theorem, the energy is calculated in the

frequency domain as follows

 
1 2 2
E
2 F ( )

d  F ( f ) df


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Example
 at
For the signal: f (t ) e u (t ) a0
 Sketch the signal
 Calculate its energy using time domain
 Calculate its energy using frequency domain.

Solution  
2 1
Using time domain: E x   f (t ) dt (e  at ) 2 dt 
0
2a


Using frequency domain: get first the Fourier transform of the signal

1 1
X ( j )  f (t )e  j t
dt  a  j X ( ) 

 2  a2
 
1 2 1 1
Ex 
2 

F ( ) d 
2 

 a
2 2
d

1  1   1    1
  tan ( )     (  ) 
10 2a  a    2a  2 2  2a
 Power and Energy
Power of Signals
 Theenergy of a signal may be infinite for many signals (periodic signals)
and for such signals we have to use the average power to measure the
signal strength.
 Averagepower is the average accumulation of absolute square of the
signal magnitudes.
Power calculation In the time domain
For periodic continuous time signals For periodic discrete time signals
N
1
To / 2 1

2
2 Px  x[n]
Px 
To x(t )
 To / 2
dt 2 N 1  N

Power calculation In the frequency domain


Px Co2  2 Cn
2

n 1

Where Cn is the Fourier Series coefficient 11

 Bandwidth
Absolute Bandwidth
 The spectrum of a signal is the range of frequencies it contains.
 The absolute bandwidth of a signal is the width of the spectrum.
 The time domain and frequency domain of a signal are inversely related.
In particular, if a signal is strictly limited in time domain, then its spectrum
is infinite and vise versa. Note: a signal can not be strictly limited in both
domains.
 BW of a signal provides a measure of the extent of significant spectral
content of the signal.
 When the signal is band limited, the BW is well defined as follows

fL fH f
B  fH  fL
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 Bandwidth
Effective Bandwidth
 But when the signal is not strictly band limited, In this case the signal has
infinite absolute BW, and we will find difficulties in defining the BW.

 However, most of the energy in the signal is contained in a relatively

narrow band of frequencies. This band is referred to as the effective BW,
or just bandwidth

 Thereis no universally accepted definition of the effective BW, But there

are commonly used definitions, named:
• Null-to-null (zero crossing) BW
• 3-db bandwidth
• Essential bandwidth.

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 Null-To-Null (Zero Crossing) BW
If the signal is low pass, then the Zero Crossing BW is defined
as

“It is the band between zero frequency to the first zero

crossing frequency”

BW= (2π – 0) = 2π Hz BW= (f2 + f1 )Hz

But if the signal is band pass centered around fc , then the

BW is defined as
“It is the band between first zero crossing frequency just
before fc to the first zero crossing frequency just after fc”
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 3-dB Bandwidth
If the signal is low pass, then the 3-dB BW is defined as

“It is the band between zero frequency to the frequency at

which
• the power drops half of maximum power, or

• the amplitude drops of maximum amplitude, ( ) or

• the amplitude spectrum drops to -3 dB , ( )

𝑉𝑜
BW= (f1 – 0) = f1 Hz
𝑉 𝑓1
BW= (ω1 – 0) = ω1 rad/sec

ω1
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 3-db Bandwidth
But if the signal is band pass centered around fc , then
the BW is defined as
“It is the band between the two frequencies just before and
after the frequency that has maximum power at which:
• power drops half of maximum power, or

• the amplitude drops of maximum amplitude, ( ) or

• the amplitude spectrum drops to -3 dB , ( )

𝑉 𝑚𝑎𝑥

𝑉 𝑓1

BW= (f2 - f1 ) Hz
f1 f2
BW= (ω2 - ω1 ) ω1 ω2 17
 Essential bandwidth of signal
 The Essential bandwidth is the frequency band which
contain 95% of the signal energy
 95% may be increased or decreased depends on the
precision needed (depends on application).
If the signal is low
pass,
It is the band between zero frequency and f1 such that:
f1 f1
2 1 2

 f1
X ( f ) df 
2 X ( ) d 0.95 Ex
 f1

Or
f1 f1
2 2 2
2 X ( f ) df  X ( ) d 0.95 Ex
0
2 0

f1
Where
  
1 2
d  f (t )
2 2
E x  X ( f ) df  X ( ) dt

2  
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 Essential bandwidth of signal
If the signal is band pass,

f1 f2

It is the band between f1 and f2 such that:

f2 f2
2 2 2
2 X ( f ) df  X ( ) d 0.95 E x
f1
2 f1

Note: Multiplying by “2” to include the spectrum at –ve side since the
spectrum is even.

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Example
If the spectrum of a signal is given by:
 a f X(f)
X ( f ) e a  0 e af
e  af
If a =0.001 then calculate:
1. Null-to-null (zero crossing) BW f
2. 3-db bandwidth
3. Essential bandwidth.
Null-to-null BW
1.Since the spectrum goes up to infinity without zero crossing, then the Null-to-null
BW is equal to infinity
X(f)
 af
3-db bandwidth BW e
 af 3 dB 1 1 0.347 1
e    af 3dB ln( )  f 3dB  347 Hz
2 2 a 2

Then the 3-dB BW is from zero up to 347 Hz 3dB BW f3dB f

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Example
X(f)
 af
Essential BW
e af e
1.Calculate the total energy:

1
E x 2e  2 af
df 
a
0 -fess Ess. BW fess f
2. Calculate fess:
f ess
0.95
2 e  2 af
df 0.95E x  
0
a
1
a
1 e 
 2 af ess


0.95
a
 f ess 
1.498
a
1498 Hz

Then the Essential BW is from zero up to 1498 Hz

This mean that the spectral components in the band from 0 (dc) to 1498 Hz
contribute 95% of the total signal energy; and all the remaining spectral
components (from 1498 to ∞) contributes 5% only of the total energy
Example 2: for the previous example calculate the Essential BW of 85%
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Example 2
If the spectrum of a signal is as shown G(f)
and If a =0.001 then calculate:
1. Null-to-null (zero crossing) BW e a ( f  10000 ) e  a ( f  10000 )
2. 3-db bandwidth
3. Essential bandwidth. 10 kHz f

Null-to-null BW
1.Since the spectrum goes up to infinity without zero crossing, then the Null-to-null
BW is equal to infinity

3-db bandwidth BW
1 1
e  a ( f3 dB  10000)   a ( f 3dB  10000) ln( ) G(f)
2 2
0.347 1 e a ( f  10000 ) e  a ( f  10000 )
 f 3dB 10000  10347 Hz
a 1/ 2

10000 f
Then the 3-dB BW is from 9653 up to 10347 Hz 9653 10347

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Example
G(f)
Essential BW
e a ( f  10000 ) e  a ( f  10000 )
1.Calculate the total energy:

 10000 2 a ( f  10000 )  2 Fc-fess fc Fc+fess f
E x 2  e df  e  2 a ( f  10000 )
df  
 0 10000  a G(f)
2. Calculate fess: 1 e a ( f  10000 ) e  a ( f  10000 )
 fc 2a ( f  f ) f c  f ess
 f c  f ess

2  e c
df  e  2 a ( f  f c )df  4 e  2 a ( f  f c )df 10000 f
 f c  f ess fc  fc 8502 11498

2
 1 e
a

 2 af ess

a

2 * 0.95
 f ess 1498 Hz

Then the Essential BW is from 8502up to 11498 Hz

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 Transmission Medium Bandwidth & Bitrate
Medium Bandwidth

 Medium Bandwidth is the range of frequencies that the medium can

pass.
 TheMedium Bandwidth can be divided into several band-pass
channels to carry several transmissions.

Fact: If the information signal bandwidth is denoted by Bi and the

communication channel bandwidth is denoted by Bc , we should
have

Bc  Bi
 Bit Rate, Nyquist Bit Rate and Shannon Capacity
Bit Rate

Bit
interval

 For
digital signals frequency and band width are not appropriate
characteristics.
 Another term called bit rate (instead of frequency) is used to describe
digital signals
 The bit rate is the number of bits sent in one second, expressed in bits
per second (bps).
 Bit Rate, Nyquist Bit Rate and Shannon Capacity
Nyquist Rate
 Nyquist Rate explain the relation between the transmission bit rate and
the required medium BW.

 For noiseless channels, the theoretical maximum bit rate is given by

𝐵𝑖𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒=2 𝐵𝑊 𝑙𝑜𝑔 2 𝐿
where BW is the channel BW and L is number of levels
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 Bit Rate, Nyquist Bit Rate and Shannon Capacity
Examples

Consider a noiseless channels with a bandwidth of 3000 Hz is used for

transmitting a signal with two signal levels. What is the maximum
transmitting bit rate.

𝐵𝑖𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒=2 ∗3000 ∗ 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 2=6000 𝑏𝑝𝑠

Consider the same channel but the signal with four signal level,

𝐵𝑖𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒=2 ∗3000 ∗ 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 4=12000 𝑏𝑝𝑠

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 Bit Rate, Nyquist Bit Rate and Shannon Capacity

Shannon Capacity
 Itis used to determine the theoretical maximum bit rate for a noisy
channel. By another words it sets the upper bound on the achievable data
rate.

𝐶 h 𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑙 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 ( 𝐶 )=𝐵𝑊 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 (1+ 𝑆𝑁𝑅)

where BW is the channel BW and SNR is signal to noise power ratio

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 Bit Rate, Nyquist Bit Rate and Shannon Capacity

Example 1
Consider an extremely noisy channel (i.e. signal power is very small
relative noise power, SNR is almost 0), then capacity is
𝐶 = 𝐵𝑊 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 (1+ 0 ) =0 𝑏𝑝𝑠

This means that the capacity of this channel is 0 regardless of the channel
BW

Example 2
Consider a telephone line of BW 3000Hz (actually 300-3300 Hz), if the
SNR = 3162, then the highest bit rate for this telephone line is

𝐶 =3000 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 ( 1+3162 )= 34860 𝑏𝑝𝑠

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Important Note on SNR in
Channel Capacity
• SNR is expressed in absolute (linear) not in dB
• If given in dB, transform to absolute
• Repeat Example 2 with SNR = 30 dB

Example 2
Consider a telephone line of BW 3000Hz (actually 300-3300 Hz), if the
SNR = 30 dB, then the highest bit rate for this telephone line is

SNR (abs) = 10SNR(dB)/10 = 1000

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