Varna Free University

Networking Standards
and the OSI Model
Network Communication

 Recognize data
 Divide data into manageable chunks
 Add information to each chunk to:
 Determine where the data is coming from
 Identify where the data is going to

 Add timing and error checking information

 Put the data on the network and send it on its
way
Standard Protocols Needed

 Network operating systems follow strict

rules (protocols) to control how each of the
previous tasks are accomplished.
 Need for standard protocols so that
software/hardware from different vendors
could communicate
Standards Organizations

 ANSI—American National Standards Institute

 Determine standards for electronics industry
 Represent US in setting international standards
 EIA—Electronics Industry Alliance
 Trade organization representing electronic firms across US
 IEEE—Institute of Electrical and Electronic
Engineers
 Internationalsociety of engineering professionals
 Promote development and education in engineering and
computer science fields
Standards Organizations

 ISO—International Organization for

Standardization
 Collection of organizations from 130 countries
 Establish international technological standards to
facilitate global exchange of data
 ITU—International Telecommunication Union
 United Nations agency that regulates international
telecommunications including radio and TV
frequencies, satellite and telephone specifications, and
networking infrastructure
OSI and 802 Models

 Two primary sets of standards

 Define rules for:
 How network devices communicate
 Methods used to determine when to send data
 Methods to ensure that data is received correctly
 How the network is cabled
 How the network maintains the flow of data
 How bits of data are represented
Open System Interconnection (OSI)

 1977-78 International Organization for

Standardization (ISO) began developing
specifications for network communications
 1984 OSI model was released
 International standard
 Best known and most widely used guide to
understanding network communications
802 Model

 Model published by the Institute for Electrical and

Electronic Engineers, Inc. (IEEE)
 Project began in February 1980 (802)
 Predates OSI standard but developed in
cooperation with OSI
 Defines aspects of networking related to physical
cabling, connectivity, error checking, data
transmission, encryption, and emerging
technologies
The seven-layer OSI model

 To help you remember

the order of the layers
 All people seem to
need data processing
 Please do not throw
sausage pizza away
Relationship of OSI Layers

 Each layer of the OSI model must communicate

with the layer above and below it
 For example, the Presentation layer must
communicate with the Application layer (one above)
and the Session layer (one below)
 As data passes down through the OSI layers,
each layer (except Physical) adds

some information to the data

Relationship of OSI Layers

 When data reaches the receiving computer,

the information added by each layer of the
OSI model is read and processed by the
corresponding layer on the receiving
computer
 This is referred to as peer-layer
communications
Relationships among OSI layers
Computer A Computer B

Application Application

Presentation Presentation
Virtual
Communication
Session Session

Transport Transport

Network Network

Data Link Data Link

Physical Physical
Packet Creation Process
Data Data
Physical Layer

 Responsible for transmitting bits from one

computer to another
 Physical topology
 Network connection types
 Number of pins on the network connector
 Passive and active hubs, terminators, cables, repeaters,
transceivers, etc.
 Defines the electrical details
 Bitencoding—what represents 0 and 1
 How data will be synchronized
 Baseband/broadband transmission
Data Link Layer
 Accepts packets of data from Network layer and
packages the data into data units called frames
 Adds information such as frame type and
physical address
 Responsible for providing error-free transfer of
data frames
 Frame Check Sequence—error checking algorithm is
added at the end of each frame so that receiving
computer can detect damaged frames and request that
frames be resent
 Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)—most commonly used
algorithm
Data Link Layer

 Intelligent hubs, bridges, and switches are

addressed by the Data Link Layer
 Defines how media will be accessed
 Divided by 802 model into two sub-layers:
 LogicalLink Control (LLC)
 Media Access Control (MAC)
Project 802 Logical Link Control and
Media Access Control sub-layers
Data Link Layer

 Logical Link Control

 Uses error check algorithm (FCS) to verify that
data is received correctly
 Ensures that the rate of transmission is appropriate
for the receiving computer
 Provides the link between the Data Link layer and
the Network layer
Data Link Layer

 Media Access Control

 Controls
the way multiple devices share the
same media channel
 Defines the method the NAC will use to determine
when to send data
 Communicates directly with the network
adapter card
 MAC (physical) address for network adapter
cards provide unique identifier for each NAC
Network Layer

 Responsible for addressing messages across

networks
 Translates network logical addresses into
physical machine addresses
 Breaks large segments into smaller packets
 Determines routing across networks
 Supports communications between logically
separate networks
 Routers and gateways (devices that pass data from
one network to another) operate in the Network layer
Transport Layer

 Ensures data is delivered error-free in sequence

and without duplication or loss
 Breaks large packets from the Session layer into
segments to be sent to the receiving computer
 Adds sequencing information to segments
 Reassembles the segments into messages
 Sends acknowledgement to sending computer
Session Layer

 Responsible for establishing and maintaining

communications between two nodes on the
network
 Allows applications on separate computers to
share a connection (called a session)
 Provides data synchronization and checkpointing
so that if there is a network failure only the data
sent after the checkpoint must be resent
 Provides name recognition and security needed to
allow two applications to communicate
Presentation Layer

 Translates data between the format the

network requires and the format the
application expects
 Responsible for encrypting data,
changing or converting the character set
and interpreting graphic commands
 Manages data compression to reduce
number of bits to be transmitted
Application Layer

 Provides services to support user

applications, such as file transfer, database
access, and e-mail
 Not a particular application—but services that
are provided to applications
OSI Process U ser R equ ests M ail

A pplication leve l
form ulates re quest
for d ata a nd sends
requ est to P resenta tion laye r

P rese ntation laye r

encyrpts re quest (if n eces sary )
adds any co des re quired to im plem ent form atting
passes reque st to S ession layer

S ession laye r
A dds a con trol fram e to data tha t
indica tes that y ou have the right to tra nsm it data
passe s data to T ra nsport laye r

T ranspo rt laye r
S ubdivides data
adds sequ encin g info
passe s data to N e tw ork laye r

N etw ork laye r

A dd n etw ork add resse s
passe s da ta to D ata Link Layer

D ata Link Laye r

P ackag es da ta into fram es
A dds F C S ; adds p hysical a ddresse s
passes to P hysical laye r

P hysica l Laye r
P laces bits on to the netw ork m edia

R equest for e -m ail is received by P hysical laye r

on rece iving co m puter
R eque st is p assed up the layers of th e O S I m odel
E ach layer re ad, p rocess es an d rem o ves in fo added by cooresponding la yer on sending com pute r
Network Packets (Frames)
 Small chunks of data and other information
 Packet Structure
 Header
 Source address
 Destination address
 Instructions that tell the computer how to pass the
data along (routing)
 Reassemble information

 Data
 Trailer containing error-check information
 A simple data packet

Destination ID Control CRC

Sender ID
Data
Trailer
Header
Two Major Frame Types

 Ethernet
 Networking technology developed in 1970
 Most commonly used today
 Used in bus and star topologies

 Token Ring
 Developed by IBM in 1980s
 Used in ring topology
Addressing

 MAC Address—physical address burned

onto NIC card
 Unique address for each NIC card produced in
the world
 Consists of a Block ID and a Device ID
 Each manufacturer has one or more Block IDs
 Added to frame by Data Link Layer—MAC
sublayer
Addressing

 Network address—logical address assigned to a

network device that identifies the network that a
device belongs
 Can be assigned automatically when a computer is
turned on
 DHCP server provides IP (network) addresses to
computers
 Can be assigned manually so that address remains
the same each time computer is turned on
 Addresses for servers and printers are assigned manually
so that other devices can always locate them