Introduction to Database

Database & Users

Introduction of Basic terms:
1.Data
• known facts that can be recorded and that have implicit meaning.
• For example, consider the names, telephone numbers, and addresses of
the people you know.
• There are many types of data to be consider like text, number, symbol,
audio, video, media, animation, graphs, charts etc.
2.Data Base
• Collection of related data with an implicit meaning is a database.
• For example, we may consider the collection of words that make up this page of
text to be related data and hence to constitute a database.
• A database represents some aspect of the real world, sometimes called the
miniworld or the universe of discourse (UoD). Changes to the miniworld are
reflected in the database.
• A database is a logically coherent collection of data with some inherent
meaning. A random assortment of data cannot correctly be referred to as a
database.
• A database is designed, built, and populated with data for a specific purpose.
• Example of a large commercial database is Amazon.com
• A database may be generated and maintained manually or it may be
computerized. For example, a library card catalog is a database that may be
created and maintained manually. A computerized database may be created and
maintained either by a group of application programs.
A database is an
organized collection
of structured
information, or data,
typically stored
electronically in a
computer system.
3.Database Management System
• A database management system (DBMS) is a computerized system that
enables users to create and maintain a database.
• The DBMS is a general-purpose software system that facilitates the
processes of defining, constructing, manipulating, and sharing
databases among various users and applications.
• Defining a database involves specifying the data types, structures, and
constraints of the data to be stored in the database.
• Constructing the database is the process of storing the data on some
storage medium that is controlled by the DBMS.
• Manipulating a database includes functions such as querying the database
to retrieve specific data, updating the database to reflect changes in the
miniworld, and generating reports from the data.
• Sharing a database allows multiple users and programs to access the
database simultaneously.
• An application program accesses the database by sending queries or
requests for data to the DBMS.
• A query typically causes some data to be retrieved.
• a transaction may cause some data to be read and some data to be written
into the database.
• Protection includes system protection against hardware or software
malfunction (or crashes) and security protection against unauthorized or
malicious access.
• A large database may have a life cycle of many years, so the DBMS must
be able to maintain the database system by allowing the system to evolve
as requirements change over time.
Database Approach

 Traditional file processing

 Each user defines and implements the files needed for a specific
software application
 Database approach
 Single repository maintains data that is defined once and then
accessed by various users
Characteristics of the Database Approach
1. Self-describing nature of a database system
2. Insulation between programs and data, and data abstraction
3. Support of multiple views of the data
4. Sharing of data and multiuser transaction processing
1. Self-describing nature of a database system

• Database system contains complete definition of data, type of data,

structure and constraints
• Meta-data
 Describes structure of the database

• Database catalog used by:

 DBMS software
 Database users who need information about database structure
2. Insulation between programs and data, and data
abstraction
 Program-data independence
 Structure of data files is stored in DBMS catalog separately from
access programs
 Program-operation independence
 Operations specified in two parts:
• Interface includes operation name and data types of its arguments
• Implementation can be changed without affecting the interface

• The characteristic that allows program-data independence and program-

operation independence is called data abstraction.
3. Support of Multiple Views of the Data
• A database typically has many types of users, each of whom may require a
different perspective or view of the database.
• A view may be a subset of the database or it may contain virtual data that is
derived from the database files but is not explicitly stored.

4. Sharing of Data and Multiuser Transaction Processing

• A multiuser DBMS, as its name implies, must allow multiple users to access
the database at the same time.
• The DBMS must include concurrency control software to ensure that several
users trying to update the same data do so in a controlled manner so that the
result of the updates is correct.
• A transaction is an executing program or process that includes one or more
database accesses, such as reading or updating of database records.
The DBMS must enforce several transaction properties.

The isolation property ensures that each transaction appears to execute in

isolation from other transactions, even though hundreds of transactions may
be executing concurrently.

The atomicity property ensures that either all the database operations in a
transaction are executed or none are.
Actors on the Scene
For a small personal database, one person typically defines, constructs, and
manipulates the database, and there is no sharing. However, in large
organizations, many people are involved in the design, use, and
maintenance of a large database with hundreds of users.

There are various types of Actors plays a vital job as a user in data base.
1. Database Administrators
2. Database Designers
3. End Users
4. System Analysts and Application Programmers
1. Database Administrators

• In any organization where many people use the same resources, there is a
need for a chief administrator to oversee and manage these resources.
• In a database environment, the primary resource is the database itself, and the
secondary resource is the DBMS and related software.
• Administering these resources is the responsibility of the database
administrator (DBA).
• The DBA is responsible for authorizing access to the database, coordinating
and monitoring its use, and acquiring software and hardware resources as
needed.
• The DBA is accountable for problems such as security breaches and poor
system response time. In large organizations, the DBA is assisted by a staff
that carries out these functions.
• DBA ensuring that the database operates efficiently and without error.
• Making and testing modifications to the database structure when needed.
• DBAs, make sure that other users can easily use the database to find the
information they need and that the system performs as it should.
• Database administrators often plan security measures, making sure that
data is secure from unauthorized access.
• Database administrators are responsible for backing up systems in case of
a power outage or other disaster.
• They also ensure the integrity of the database, guaranteeing that the data
stored in it comes from reliable sources.
2. Database Designers
• Database designers are responsible for identifying the data to be stored in the
data-base and for choosing appropriate structures to represent and store this
data.
• These tasks are mostly undertaken before the database is actually implemented
and populated with data.
• It is the responsibility of database designers to communicate with all
prospective database users in order to understand their requirements and to
create a design that meets these requirements.
• Database designers typically interact with each potential group of users and
develop views of the database that meet the data and processing requirements
of these groups.
• Each view is then analyzed and integrated with the views of other user groups.
• The final database design must be capable of supporting the requirements of all
user groups.
3. End Users
End users are the people whose jobs require access to the database for
querying, updating, and generating reports; the database primarily exists for
their use. There are several categories of end users:
i. Casual end users occasionally access the database, but they may need
different information each time.
ii. Naive or parametric end users make up a sizable portion of database
end users. Examples ; Bank tellers check account balances and post
withdrawals and deposits. Reservation agents for airlines, hotels, and car
rental companies check availability for a given request and make
reservations. Employees at receiving stations for shipping companies enter
package identifications via bar codes and descriptive information through
buttons to update a central database of received and in-transit packages.
iii. Standalone users maintain personal databases by using ready-made pro-
gram packages that provide easy-to-use menu-based or graphics-based
interfaces. An example is the user of a tax package that stores a variety of
personal financial data for tax purposes.

4. System Analysts and Application Programmers

• System analysts determine the requirements of end users, especially naive
and parametric end users, and develop specifications for standard canned
transactions that meet these requirements.
• Application programmers implement these specifications as programs;
then they test, debug, document, and maintain these canned transactions.
Such analysts and programmers—commonly referred to
as software developers or software engineers—should be familiar with the
full range of capabilities provided by the DBMS to accomplish their tasks.
 workers behind the scene
In addition to those who design, use, and administer a database, others are
associated with the design, development, and operation of the DBMS software
and system environment. These persons are typically not interested in the
database content itself. We call them the workers behind the scene, and they
include the following categories:

i. DBMS system designers and implementers

• They design and implement the DBMS modules and interfaces as a software
package.
• A DBMS is a very complex software system that consists of many
components, or modules.
• The DBMS must interface with other system software such as the operating
system and compilers for various programming languages.
ii. Tool developers
• design and implement tools—the software packages that facilitate database
modeling and design, database system design, and improved performance.
• Tools are optional packages that are often purchased separately.
• They include packages for database design, performance monitoring,
natural language or graphical interfaces, prototyping, simulation, and test
data generation.
• In many cases, independent software vendors develop and market these
tools.

iii. Operators and maintenance personnel (system administration

personnel) are responsible for the actual running and maintenance of the
hardware and software environment for the database system.
Advantages of Using the DBMS Approach

1. Controlling Redundancy
• In a regular file processing system, there are data redundancies,
which lead to the following problems:
Data needs to be entered multiple times, causing duplication of
effort!
Data may become inconsistent.
• In DBMS, each data item is stored in such a way so that there is no
inconsistency in data, and moreover, it saves a lot of storage space!
2. Restricting unauthorized access
DBMS provides security and authorization so that some users are not
authorized to access all data in the database.

3. Atomicity in data
In a DBMS, every transaction is 'atomic'. This means that the transaction
should either be fully complete or must not start at all.
4. Providing storage structures and search techniques for efficient query
processing
• Indexes
• Buffering and caching
• Query processing and optimization

5. Providing backup and recovery

A DBMS facilitates backup and recovery in the event of a software failure,
which makes the chances of data loss almost negligible!

6. Provides multiple user interfaces

There are different types of users with different technical knowledge. So,
a DBMS provides different user interfaces.
7. Representing complex relationships among data
A DBMS has the capability to represent a variety of complex relationships
among data, as well as to retrieve and update related data efficiently. A good
example of that is the use of foreign keys.

8. Enforcing integrity constraints

A DBMS provides capabilities for defining and enforcing integrity
constraints that must hold for data. Example: specifying the data type for
each data item.
 Referential integrity constraint
• Every section record must be related to a course record
 Key or uniqueness constraint
• Every course record must have a unique value for Course_number
9. Permitting inferencing and actions using rules
 Deductive database systems
• Provide capabilities for defining deduction rules
• Inferencing new information from the stored database facts
 Trigger
• Rule activated by updates to the table
 Stored procedures
• More involved procedures to enforce rules
10. Additional implications of using the database approach
 Reduced application development time
 Flexibility
 Availability of up-to-date information
 Economies of scale