Structured Query Language (SQL)

Lecture 7
Learning Outcomes
 In this chapter, you will learn:
 The basic commands and functions of SQL
 How to use SQL for data administration (to
create tables, indexes, and views)
 How to use SQL for data manipulation (to add,
modify, delete, and retrieve data)
 How to use SQL to query a database for useful
information

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Introduction to SQL
 SQL functions fit into two broad categories:
 Data definition language (DDL)
 Data manipulation language (DML)
 Basic command set has vocabulary of fewer
than 100 words
 American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
prescribes a standard SQL
 Several SQL dialects exist

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Data Definition Commands
 Example of DDL:
 Create
 Alter
 Truncate
 Drop
 The database model
 In this chapter, a simple database with these
tables is used to illustrate commands:
 CUSTOMER
 INVOICE
 LINE
 PRODUCT
 VENDOR
 Focus on PRODUCT and VENDOR tables
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Creating the Database
 Two tasks must be completed:
 Create database structure
 Create tables that will hold end-user data
 First task:
 RDBMS creates physical files that will hold
database
 Differs substantially from one RDBMS to another
 Syntax:
 CREATE DATABASE <database_name>;
 Example: CREATE DATABASE Tiny_College;

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The Database Schema
 Authentication
 DBMS verifies that only registered users are able
to access database
 Log on to RDBMS using user ID and password
created by database administrator
 Schema
 Group of database objects that are related to each
other
 While creating tables, the relationship is
important.
 Must create Parent table before Child table

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Data Types
 Data type selection is usually dictated by
nature of data and by intended use
 Supported data types:
 Number(L,D), Integer, Smallint, Decimal(L,D)
 Char(L), Varchar(L), Varchar2(L)
 Date, Time, Timestamp
 Real, Double, Float
 Interval day to hour
 Many other types

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Creating Table Structures
 Use one line per column (attribute) definition
 Use spaces to line up attribute characteristics
and constraints
 Table and attribute names are capitalized
 NOT NULL specification
 UNIQUE specification
 Primary key attributes contain both a NOT
NULL and a UNIQUE specification
 RDBMS will automatically enforce referential
integrity for foreign keys
 Command sequence ends with semicolon
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Integrity
 Primary key attributes contain both a NOT
NULL and a UNIQUE specification
 RDBMS will automatically enforce referential
integrity for foreign keys
 Rules of foreign key

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Referential Integrity Rules
• Delete Rules
(1) Restrict – Cannot delete a record if records
are found in both parent and dependent table
The check for dependent rows is performed immediately.
(2) No Action – Cannot delete a record if records
are found in both parent and dependent table.
The check for dependent rows is performed at the end of the statement.
(3) Cascade – Deleting row in parent table
automatically deletes any related rows in
dependent tables
(4) Set Null – Foreign key fields set to null, other
columns left unchanged

• Update rules?
 Restrict
 No Action
 Cascade (for MySQL)
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SQL Constraints
 NOT NULL constraint
 Ensures that column does not accept nulls
 UNIQUE constraint
 Ensures that all values in column are unique
 DEFAULT constraint
 Assigns value to attribute when a new row is
added to table
 CHECK constraint
 Validates data when attribute value is entered

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SQL Indexes
 When primary key is declared, DBMS
automatically creates unique index
 Often need additional indexes
 Using CREATE INDEX command, SQL indexes
can be created on basis of any selected
attribute
 Composite index
 Index based on two or more attributes
 Often used to prevent data duplication

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Creating Table Structures
 CREATE TABLE <table name>( v_code v_name
<attribute1 name and attribute1 characteristics,
A1234 Pocopoint
attribute2 name and attribute2 characteristics,
A1231
attribute3 name and attribute3 characteristics, Vara
primary key designation,
foreign key designation and foreign key requirements>);

 Example:
 CREATE TABLE VENDOR
(v_code char(5) not null,
v_name varchar(20),
v_contact varchar(15),
v_areacode char(5),
v_phone varchar(10),
v_state char(2),
v_order char(1)
primary key (v_code));

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Creating Table Structures
 Example: MySQL format: user must input as
YYYY-MM-DD
 CREATE TABLE PRODUCT
(p_code varchar(10) not null,
p_descript varchar(50),
p_indate date,
p_onhand integer,
p_min integer,
p_price decimal(5,2),
p_discount decimal (3,2),
v_code varchar(5), Integer: round number
primary key (p_code),
Decimal: number with
foreign key (v_code) references vendor
decimal point, need to pre-
on delete set null);
set 2 parameters. Total
 Some RDBMS declare foreign numberkeyof digit,
as: and
FOREIGN KEY
number of decimal point
(v_code) REFERENCES VENDOR(v_code) ON DELETE SET
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Advanced Data Definition Commands
 All changes in table structure are made by
using ALTER command
 Three options:
 ADD adds a column
 MODIFY changes column characteristics
 DROP deletes a column
 Can also be used to:
 Add/remove table constraints
 Includes check constraints, PK, FK

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Changing a Column’s Data Type
 ALTER can be used to change data type
 Some RDBMSs do not permit changes to data
types unless column is empty, such as Oracle

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Changing a Column’s Data
Characteristics
 Use ALTER to change data characteristics
 Example:
 ALTER TABLE <table name> MODIFY (<column name>
<new column characteristics>);

 Changes in column’s characteristics are permitted

if changes do not alter the existing data type
 Example:
 Changing a Column’s Data Type
 ALTER TABLE PRODUCT MODIFY (V_CODE CHAR(5));
 Changing Attribute Characteristics
 ALTER TABLE PRODUCT MODIFY (P_PRICE DECIMAL(9,2));

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 Adding a Column
 Use ALTER to add column
 Do not include the NOT NULL clause for new column
 Adding a New Column to the Table
 ALTER TABLE PRODUCT ADD COLUMN P_SALECODE
CHAR(1);
 ALTER TABLE PRODUCT ADD COLUMN P_SALECODE
CHAR(1) AFTER P_DISCOUNT;
 More example:
 ALTER TABLE PRODUCT ADD PRIMARY KEY (P_CODE);
 ALTER TABLE PRODUCT ADD FOREIGN KEY (V_CODE)
REFERENCES VENDOR(V_CODE);
 ALTER TABLE `PRODUCT` ADD `P_SALECODE` CHAR(1)
AFTER `P_INDATE` ;
 Some other alternatives:
 ALTER TABLE PRODUCT ADD CONSTRAINT pk_code PRIMARY
KEY (P_CODE);
 ALTER TABLE PRODUCT ADD CONSTRAINT fk_vcode FOREIGN
KEY (V_CODE) REFERENCES VENDOR(V_CODE)
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Dropping a Column
 Use ALTER to drop column
 Some RDBMSs impose restrictions on the deletion
of an attribute
 Example:
 ALTER TABLE VENDOR
 DROP COLUMN V_ORDER;

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Data Manipulation Commands
 INSERT
 SELECT
 COMMIT
 UPDATE
 ROLLBACK
 DELETE

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Adding Table Rows
 INSERT
 Used to enter data into table
 Syntax:
 INSERT INTO tablename
VALUES (value1, value2, … , valueN);
 Example:
 INSERT INTO VENDOR VALUES(‘21225’, ’Bryson Inc.’,
’Smithson’, ’615’, ’223-3234’, ’TN’, ‘Y’);
 OR
 INSERT INTO VENDOR (v_code, v_name_v_areacode, v_state,
v_contact, v_phone, v_order) VALUES
(‘21225’, ’Bryson Inc.’,’615’,’TN’, ’Smithson’, ’223-
3234’, ‘Y’);

 INSERT INTO PRODUCT VALUES(‘11 QER/31’, ‘Power painter’,

22 ‘15 psi.’, ‘3-nozzle’, ’07-02-1999’,
TDB2111 8.5, 109.99, 0.00,
Database Systems ‘25595’);
December 24, 2024
Adding Table Rows (cont’d.)
 When entering values, notice that:
 Row contents are entered between parentheses
 Character and date values are entered between
apostrophes
 Numerical entries are not enclosed in apostrophes
 Attribute entries are separated by commas
 A value is required for each column
 Use NULL for unknown values

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Saving Table Changes
 Changes made to table contents are not
physically saved on disk until:
 Database is closed
 Program is closed
 COMMIT command is used
 Syntax:
 COMMIT [WORK];
 Will permanently save any changes made to
any table in the database
 Some DBMS will automatically COMMIT the
query, such as phpMyAdmin in Xampp

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Listing Table Rows
 SELECT
 Used to list contents of table
 Syntax:
 SELECT columnlist
 FROM tablename;
 Columnlist represents one or more attributes,
separated by commas
 Example: SELECT p_code, p_descript, p_indate,
p_onhand, p_min, p_price, p_discount, v_code FROM
product;
 Asterisk can be used as wildcard character to
list all attributes
 Example: SELECT * FROM product;
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Updating Table Rows
 UPDATE
 Modify data in a table
 Syntax:
 UPDATE tablename
SET columnname = expression [, columnname =
expression]
[WHERE conditionlist];
 Example:
 UPDATE product
 SET p_indate = ‘12/11/96’
 WHERE p_code = ‘13-Q2/P2’;
 If more than one attribute is to be updated in row,
separate corrections with commas
 Example:
 UPDATE product
 SET P_INDATE = ‘12/11/96’, P_PRICE = 15.99,
P_MIN=10
 WHERE P_CODE = ‘13-Q2/P2’;
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Restoring Table Contents
 ROLLBACK
 Undoes changes since last COMMIT
 Brings data back to prechange values
 Syntax:
 ROLLBACK;
 COMMIT and ROLLBACK only work with
commands to add, modify, or delete table
rows

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Deleting Table Rows
 DELETE
 Deletes a table row
 Syntax:
 DELETE FROM tablename
[WHERE conditionlist ];
 WHERE condition is optional
 If WHERE condition is not specified, all rows
from specified table will be deleted
 example:s:
 DELETE FROM product WHERE p_code =
‘2238/QPD’;
 DELETE FROM product WHERE p_min = 5;
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Copying Parts of Tables
 SQL permits copying contents of selected
table columns
 Data need not be reentered manually into newly
created table(s)
 First create the table structure
 Next add rows to new table using table rows
from another table
 INSERT INTO table2(col1, col2, …) SELECT
col1, col2… FROM table1 WHERE condition;

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Copying Parts of Tables
 INSERT
 Inserts multiple rows from another table (source)
 Uses SELECT subquery
 Subquery: query embedded (or nested or inner)
inside another query
 Subquery executed first
 Syntax:
 INSERT INTO tablename SELECT columnlist FROM
tablename;

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Example: Inserting Columns from Table
Product into Table Part
 CREATE TABLE PART (
PART_CODE CHAR(8) NOT NULL,
PART_DESCRIPT CHAR(35),
PART_PRICE DECIMAL(8,2),
PRIMARY KEY(PART_CODE));

 INSERT INTO PART (

PART_CODE, PART_DESCRIPT, PART_PRICE)
SELECT P_CODE, P_DESCRIPT, P_PRICE FROM
PRODUCT;

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Copying PRODUCT Table into PART Table
- Result

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SELECT Queries
 Fine-tune SELECT command by adding
restrictions to search criteria using:
 Conditional restrictions
 Arithmetic operators
 Logical operators
 Special operators

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Selecting Rows with
Conditional Restrictions
 Select partial table contents by placing
restrictions on rows to be included in output
 Add conditional restrictions to SELECT statement,
using WHERE clause
 Syntax:
 SELECT columnlist
FROM tablelist
[ WHERE conditionlist ] ;

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Selected PRODUCT Table Attributes for
VENDOR Code 21344
SELECT P_DESCRIPT, P_INDATE, P_PRICE, V_CODE
FROM PRODUCT
WHERE V_CODE = 21344;

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Comparison Operators

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Selected PRODUCT Table Attributes for
VENDOR Codes Other than 21344
SELECT P_DESCRIPT, P_INDATE, P_PRICE, V_CODE
FROM PRODUCT
WHERE V_CODE <> 21344;

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Selected PRODUCT Table Attributes
with a P_PRICE Restriction
SELECT P_DESCRIPT, P_QOH, P_MIN, P_PRICE
FROM PRODUCT
WHERE P_PRICE <= 10;

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Selected PRODUCT Table Attributes:
The ASCII Code Effect

SELECT P_CODE, P_DESCRIPT, P_QOH, P_MIN, P_PRICE

FROM PRODUCT
WHERE P_CODE < ‘1558-QW1’;

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Selected PRODUCT Table Attributes:
Date Restriction

SELECT P_DESCRIPT, P_QOH, P_MIN, P_PRICE, P_INDATE

FROM PRODUCT
WHERE P_INDATE >= ’20-Jan-2004’;

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SELECT Statement with a Computed
Column
SELECT P_DESCRIPT, P_QOH, P_PRICE, P_QOH* P_PRICE
FROM PRODUCT;

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SELECT Statement with a Computed
Column and an Alias
SELECT P_DESCRIPT, P_QOH, P_PRICE, P_QOH * P_PRICE
AS TOT VALUE
FROM PRODUCT;

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Arithmetic Operators:
The Rule of Precedence
 Perform operations within parentheses
 Perform power operations
 Perform multiplications and divisions
 Perform additions and subtractions

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Logical Operators: AND, OR, and NOT
 Searching data involves multiple conditions
 Logical operators: AND, OR, and NOT
 Can be combined
 Parentheses enforce precedence order
 Conditions in parentheses are always executed first
 Boolean algebra: mathematical field
dedicated to use of logical operators
 NOT negates result of conditional expression

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Selected PRODUCT Table Attributes:
The Logical OR
SELECT P_DESCRIPT, P_INDATE, P_PRICE, V_CODE
FROM PRODUCT Either 21344 OR 24288
WHERE V_CODE = 21344 OR V_CODE = 24288;

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Selected PRODUCT Table Attributes:
The Logical AND
SELECT P_DESCRIPT, P_INDATE, P_PRICE, V_CODE
FROM PRODUCT AND: must fulfill all conditions
WHERE P_PRICE < 50
AND P_INDATE > ’15-Jan-2004’;

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Selected PRODUCT Table Attributes:
The Logical AND and OR
SELECT P_DESCRIPT, P_INDATE, P_PRICE, V_CODE
FROM PRODUCT
WHERE (P_PRICE < 50 AND P_DATE > ’15-Jan-2004’)
OR V_CODE = 24288;

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Special Operators
 BETWEEN: checks whether attribute value is
within a range
 IS NULL: checks whether attribute value is null
 LIKE: checks whether attribute value matches
given string pattern
 IN: checks whether attribute value matches
any value within a value list
 EXISTS: checks if subquery returns any rows

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Special Operators: Examples
 BETWEEN is used to define range limits.

 Examples:
 SELECT *
FROM PRODUCT
WHERE P_PRICE BETWEEN 50.00 AND 100.00;

 SELECT *
FROM PRODUCT
WHERE P_PRICE > 50.00 AND P_PRICE < 100.00;

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Special Operators
 IS NULL is used to check whether an attribute
value is null.

 Examples:
 SELECT P_CODE, P_DESCRIPT, V_CODE
FROM PRODUCT
WHERE V_CODE IS NULL;

 SELECT P_CODE, P_DESCRIPT, P_INDATE

FROM PRODUCT
WHERE P_INDATE IS NULL;

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Special Operators
 LIKE is used to check for similar character
strings.
 Examples:
 SELECT V_NAME, V_CONTACT, V_AREACODE, V_PHONE
FROM VENDOR
WHERE V_CONTACT LIKE ‘Smith%’;

 SELECT V_NAME, V_CONTACT, V_AREACODE, V_PHONE

FROM VENDOR
WHERE V_CONTACT LIKE ‘SMITH%’;

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Special Operators
 IN is used to check whether an attribute value
matches a value contained within a (sub)set
of listed values.
 SELECT *
FROM PRODUCT
WHERE V_CODE IN (21344, 24288);

 EXISTS is used to check whether an attribute

has value.
 DELETE FROM PRODUCT WHERE P_CODE EXISTS;
 SELECT * FROM PRODUCT WHERE V_CODE EXISTS;

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Date & Time (Basic)
 Date function:
 SELECT date_format(curdate(), ‘%d/%m/%y’);
 Customize the date format when display

 SELECT DATEDIFF('2019-11-04','2018-12-04') days;

 Get the different in days between two dates

 Time function:
 It is one of the data type with format: HH:MM:SS
 SELECT time_format( current_time(), '%h:%i %p');
 h: refers to hour, from 0 – 12
 i: refers to minute, from0 – 60
 p: means AM or PM

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Advanced Data Updates
 UPDATE command updates only data in
existing rows
 If relationship between entries and existing
columns, can assign values to slots
 Arithmetic operators are useful in data
updates
 In Oracle, ROLLBACK command undoes
changes made by last two UPDATE statements

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Advanced Data Updates - Example
P_INDATE P_SALECODE
Before December 25 2
2009
Between January 16 1
2010 and 10 February
UPDATE2010
PRODUCT
SET P_SALECODE = ‘2’
WHERE P_INDATE < ‘2009-12-25’;

UPDATE PRODUCT
SET P_SALECODE = ‘1’
WHERE P_INDATE >= ‘2010-01-16’
AND P_INDATE <= ‘2010-02-10’;
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Advanced Data Updates - Results

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