Fundamentals of Environment

Introduction
The word "ecology" ("oekologie") (coined by German scientist Ernst Haeckel,1866) was derived from the Greek
―oikos” meaning "household" and logos meaning "science:" the "study of the household of nature”
Or
Ecology is the branch of science studying the interaction among living things and their environment
Or
Ecology is branch of biology concerned with the relations between organisms and their environment
Or
Study of the interaction between living things and their physical , chemical and biological environment

Ecology is not synonymous with environment, environmentalism, or environmental science.

Ecology is closely related to physiology, evolutionary biology, genetics and ethology.
An understanding of how biodiversity affects ecological function is an important focus area in ecological
studies.
Ecological systems are studied at several different levels from individuals and populations
to ecosystems and biosphere level.

Ecology is a multi-disciplinary science, drawing on many other branches of science.

Applied ecology is the practice of employing ecological principles and understanding to

solve real world problems.

For example
a)calculating fish population,
b)measuring environmental impact from construction or logging,
c)building a case for the conservation of a species, and
d)determining the most effective way to protect a species.
Basic concepts in ecology
An ecosystem
An ecosystem means the collection of life forms, including all organic and inorganic material, in a
determined area. An ecosystem is an interactive entity, and its boundaries are not often very clear.

www.nissan4x4.co.za/Gallery/Bongani/Kgalagadi...
Population

A group of organism of the same species which

live in the same habitat at the same time where
they can freely interbreed

The black-veined white butterfly(Aporia crataegi)

mating

© P Billiet
 Community

A community means all the populations of different species that inhabit a certain area

• 7-spotted lady bird (Adephagia septempunctata)

• Bean aphids(Aphis fabae)
• Red ant (Myrmica rubra) and
• Broom plant(Cytisus scoparius)
Biodiversity

Biodiversity, i.e. biological diversity, is the variety of living things in a given area.
Biodiversity can be defined in many different ways, such as in terms of genetic diversity or ecosystem diversity, but it is
most often defined in terms of species diversity.

www.worcestercitymuseums.org.uk/.../bbox2.jpg
Biochemical Cycles

Biochemical cycles are complex cyclical transfers of nutrients from the environment to organisms and back to the
environment.

Carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus cycles, for example.

Ecological Succession
Is defined as an orderly process of changes in community structure and function with time mediated through
modifications in the physical environment and ultimately culminating in a stabilized ecosystem known as climax.

The whole sequence of communities which are transitory are known as seral stages or seres whereas the community
establishing first of all in the area is called pioneer community.
ECOSYSTEM
The concept of ecosystem was first put forth by A.G. Tansley (1935).

Ecosystem is the major ecological unit.

It has both structure and function.

Ecosystem is a group of biotic communities of Interacting with one another and with their non living
environment exchanging energy and matter.

Ecosystem consist of the living community and non- living factors of the environment.
It is therefore the totality of the system in which life proceed.
Ecosystem is equal to living community plus non-living factors of the environment.
Ecosystem refers to the smallest unit of the biosphere that has all the characteristics to sustain life. It can also
be described as an assemblage of populations grouped into communities and interacting with each other
and their local environment.
Ecosystem varies greatly with respect to size location, weather pattern and types of animal and plant that live
there
Common to all ecosystems is a set of processes.

There are 2 important characteristics of ecosystem concept:

1. It can be applied at any scale example a drop of water inhabited by protozoa or mosquito
or a forest estate. Ecosystem vary strictly with respect to size, location, weather pattern and
types. The boundary of an ecosystem is not absolute because animals may wander from one
region to another; seeds are blown by wind from one place to another.

2.There is reciprocity between living component of the ecosystem. The environment affects
the organism as much as the organism affects the environment.
Structure of Ecosystem

ABIOTIC Biotic

Temperature, Sunshine
Wind
Autotrophs Heterotrophs Decomposers
(green plants)

1 consumers 2consumers 3 consumers

(e.g. Goat) 1 carnivores 2 carnivores
(e.g. Dog) (eg Hyenna)
Components of the ecosystem
There are 2 basic elements in a given ecosystem
1. Living or biotic element
2. Non-living or abiotic element

Biotic component
Living parts of ecosystem can be sub-divided into
(a)Autotrophs: - are the green plants which are the primary producers because they are able to convert the
atmospheric sunlight through photosynthesis to manufacture their own food.

b) Heterotrophs: - they cannot synthesize their own food from sunlight and then depend on the primary
producers (green plants). They are thus consumers. There are 3 levels of consumers:-
1. Primary consumers: - are the herbivores that feed directly on the primary producers. E.g Sheep, Goat.
2. Secondary consumers: - feed on the primary consumers. They are the carnivores e.g Dog, Cat.
3. Tertiary consumers:- are various carnivores that feeds on other carnivores e.g Hyena,
4. Decomposers: - These break down the producers and the consumers to micro part for reservation back into
the systems e.g Microorganisms
Abiotic component
Comprises the non-living, in -animate parts called physical environment.
The physical and chemical components of an ecosystem constitute its abiotic structure.
It include
Climate (Temperature, Humidity, Rainfall, Sunshine, Wind and Evapotranspiration)
Geographical factors
Energy
Nutrients
Toxic substance
Physical factors
• Sunlight and shade
• Intensity of solar flux
• Duration of sun hours
• Latitude and altitude
• Annual rainfall
• Wind
• Water availability
• Water current
• Soil type
• Average temperature
• Maximum and minimum temperature
Chemical factors
•Carbon
•Nitrogen
•Phosphorus
•Potassium
•Hydrogen
•Oxygen
•Levels of toxic substances
•Salt causing salinity
•Sulphur
Various organic substance present in the soil or water largely influenced the functioning
of the ecosystem.
Functional Attributes

• Food chain
• Food web
• Energy flow
• Biogeochemical cycle
• Primary and secondary production
• Ecosystem development and regulation
 Food Chains

• The sequence of eating and being eaten is known as food chain

• The producers, consumers, and decomposers of each ecosystem make up a food chain
• The producers and consumers are arranged in the ecosystem in a definite manner and
their interaction along with population size are expressed together as trophic structure
• Each level is known as a trophic level at a given time
• The amount of living matter at each trophic level is known as standing crop or
standing biomass
• There are many food chains in an ecosystem
In each transfer some energy is lost .
Therefore the shorter the food chain the greater the energy available to that population.
Food chains are of two basic types:

1. THE GRAZING FOOD CHAIN

This type of food chain starts from the green plant which goes to grazing herbivores and
on carnivores
Grass……….Grasshopper………Frog………..Snake…….Hawk
2. THE DETRITUS (ERODED) FOOD CHAIN
It starts with dead organic matter which the detritivores and decomposers consume.
Partially decomposed organic matter and even the decomposers are consumed by
detritivores and their predators. An example of the detritus food chain is seen in a
Mangrove estuary.
• A large quantity of leaf material falls in the form of litter into water. The leaf fragments
are eaten by saprotrophs
• Saprotrophs are those organisms which feeds on dead organic matter
• These fallen leaves are colonized by small algae , which are also consumed by the
saprotrophs or detritivores consisting of small crabs , mollusks, shrimps ,insects larvae ,
nematodes and fishes
• These detritivores are eaten by large carnivorous fishes
Leaf litter……algae….crabs…..small carnivorous fish……..…large carnivorous fish
(Mangrove ecosystem)
Dead organic matter……fungi…..bacteria (Forest ecosystem)

thus the grazing food chain derives its energy basically from plant. While in detritus food
chain it is obtained from plant biomass, secondarily from microbial biomass and tertiarily
from carnivores

Both the food chains occur together in natural ecosystem, but grazing food chain usually
predominates
Characteristics of food chain

• In a food chain, there is repeated eating in which each group eats the smaller one and is
eaten by the larger one
• In a food chain there is unidirectional flow of energy from sun to producer and then
series of consumers
• Usually 80-90% of potential energy is lost as a heat at each transfer
• Usually there are 4-5 trophic levels in the food chain, shorter food chain will provided
greater energy
• A food chain is always straight
• Omnivores generally occupy more than 1 trophic level in a food chain
 Food web : Interlocking pattern of organisms
• Food web is the network of food chains where different types of organisms are connected
at different trophic levels ,so that option of eating and being eaten at each trophic level
• Food chains in natural conditions never operate as isolated sequences, but are
interconnected with each other forming interlocking pattern, which is referred to as a food
web
• Under natural conditions, the linear arrangement of food chains hardly occurs and these
remain indeed interconnected with each other through different types of organisms at
different trophic levels.
• For example, in grazing food chain of grassland, in the absence of rabbit, grass may also be
eaten by mouse. The mouse in turn may be eaten directly by hawk or by snake first which
is then eaten by hawk. Thus, in nature there are found alternatives which all together
constitute some sort of interlocking pattern and are called the food web.
https://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/environment/ecosystem/food-webs-useful-notes-on-food-webs-with-
diagram/27315
There may be seen five possible food chains interlocked together making the food web.
Besides those shown in Figure 1.1, there may also be present some other consumers as
vultures, fox and man in grasslands, and if so, the food web may be even more complex
than shown in the figure
Grass………. Grasshopper……..hawk
Grass………..Grasshopper……...Lizard…..Hawk
Grass………..Mouse……Hawk
Grass………...Mouse…..Snake……Hawk

However, these all five chains are interlinked with each other at different points, forming
food web. Real food webs usually have hundreds of species interlinked by their feeding
habits. Food webs are basic units of ecosystem ecology.
Food web
Significance of food web

• The food web provides alternate pathways of food availability

e.g. if particular crop is destroyed due to some disease ,the herbivores in that area do not
perish as these can graze on other types of crop or herbs .greater the no of these alternate
pathways more stable is the ecosystem
• These also help in checking over population of highly fecundity species of plants and
animals .
• Food webs also help in ecosystem development
Ecological Pyramids
• An ecological pyramid (also trophic pyramid or energy pyramid) is a graphical
representation of trophic structure and function of an ecosystem, starting with producer at
base and successive trophic levels forming the apex.
• Term Ecological Pyramids coined by Charles Elton

TYPES OF ECOLOGICAL PYRAMID

Pyramid of Number
Pyramid of Biomass
Pyramid of Energy
Pyramid of number
• A pyramid of numbers is a graphical representation of the numbers of individuals in
each population in a food chain. Often it is drawn from the autotrophic level up.
• A pyramid of numbers can be used to examine how the population of a certain
species affects another.
• Often, the autotrophic level in a pyramid of numbers is much larger than any of the
higher trophic levels, and the numbers decreases upon ascending the pyramid.
• There are exceptions, however for example, in a tree community, a single tree could
support many different populations of larger numbers.
Grassland ecosystem

Parasitic Food Forest

chain ecosystem
Pyramid of Biomass
• Illustrates the amount of biomass in each trophic level
• Biomass weight is determined after dehydration
• Shows the amount of matter lost between trophic levels.
• Measured in Kg, grams or pounds
Pyramid of Energy

• Shows the energy available at each trophic level.

• The size of the blocks represents the proportion of productivity.
• Measured in Joules or Calories
Ecological Succession
• Is defined as an orderly process of changes in community structure and function with
time mediated through modifications in the physical environment and ultimately
culminating in a stabilized ecosystem known as climax.

• The whole sequence of communities which are transitory are known as seral stages or
seres whereas the community establishing first of all in the area is called pioneer
community.
Characteristics of ecological succession

• A continuous change in the kinds of animals and plants towards stability .

• Increase in the species diversity
• In an area , the plant and animals communities undergoes succession.
• Biotic succession on a bare ground progress towards increasing wetness, while biotic
succession in open water progress towards increasing dryness
• An increase in the organic matter and biomass
On basis of different substrata ecological succession

• Hydrosere (water)
• Mesosere (moderate moisture)
• Xerosere (dry area with little moisture)
Xerosere

• Lithosere ( rocky surface)

• Psammosere (coastal soil)

• Halosere (saline soil)

Process

• Nudation
• Invasion
• Competition and coaction
• Reaction
• Stabilization
Nudation : it is the development of a bare area without any life form
The bare area may be caused due to landslides, volcanic eruption etc or due to drought,
glaciers, frost etc or due to overgrazing ,disease outbreak, agricultural/ industrial activities

Invasion : it is the successful establishment of one or more species on a bare area through
dispersal or migration followed by ecesis or establishment. Dispersal of the seed , spores
etc is brought about by wind, water , insect or birds. Then the seeds germinate and grow on
the land. As growth and reproduction start, these pioneer species increase in number and
form group or aggregation.

Competition and coaction: As the number of individuals grows there is competition ,

both inter specific and intraspecific for space , water and nutrition. They influence each
other in a number of ways known as coaction.
Reaction: The living organisms grow , use water and nutrients from the substratum , and
in turn , they have strong influence on the environment which is modified to a large extent
and this known as reaction. The modifications are very often such that they become
unsuitable for the existing species and favor some new species , which replace them.
Thus, reaction leads to several seral communities.

Stabilization: The succession ultimately culminates in a more or less. Stable community

called climax which is in equilibrium with the environment

The climax community is characterized by maximum biomass and symbiotic (mutually

beneficial) linkages between organisms and are maintained quite efficiently per unit
available energy.
Hydrosere

• Free floating stage (pioneer )

• Rooted floating stage
• Reed swamp stage
• Sedge meadow stage
• Woodland stage
• Forest (climax)
Xerosere

• Lichen ( pioneer)
• Mosses
• Herbs
• Shrubs
• Forest ( climax)
• This type of succession starts on bare rocks , which lacks water and organic matter.
• The pioneer community here is crustose and foliose lichens .
• These lichens produce some weak acid and help in disintegrating the rock ,known as
weathering.
• Their growth help in building up gradually some organic matter, humus and soil.
• Then comes the community of mosses, followed by herbs , shrubs and finally the forest
trees
• Throughout this gradual process there is slow build of organic matter and water in the
substratum
• Thus succession tends to move towards mesic conditions (moderate condition)
irrespective of the fact, whether in started from dry ( xeric ) condition or a moist ( hydric)
condition and it culminates in a stable climax community , which is usually a forest.
Energy flow in an ecosystem
• Energy flow is the key function of an ecosystem .
• There is unidirectional flow of energy.
• During each transfer 80-90% energy is lost in a form of heat in metabolic
reaction e.g. respiration and excretion.
• 10-20% of energy is available in next trophic level.
• There is corresponding decrease in biomass
• Energy follows 1st and 2nd law of thermodynamics
 First law of thermodynamics
Energy can neither be created nor be destroyed it can be converted
from one form to another form.

Second law of thermodynamics

Every Energy transformation involves dissipation or degradation of energy from
concentrated to dispersed form due to metabolic functions ,So that only part of energy is
stored in the biomass
 Lindeman’s Energy flow model
Solar radiation (118872) Decomposition 3.0 Decomposition (Trace)
Decomposition 0.5

Autotrophs
Gross production Herbivores Carnivores Not
utilized 1.2
(G.P/111) (G.P/15) (G.P/3.0)

Respiration 1.8
Respiration 23 Not utilized 70 Not utilized 7

Respiration 4.5
Producers can utilize only 0.1 % (111.0 gcal/cm2 /yr out of 118,872 g.al./cm2/year) of
incident solar radiation in their primary gross production or total photosynthesis

Out of this gross production, about 21% is consumed in metabolic functions of the
autotrophs e.g respiration, growth and reproduction; 63% remains unutilized and about 3%
is utilized in the process of decomposition so that only 13-14% (i.e. 15g.cal./cm2/year)of
PG is available to the herbivores

At herbivores, out of 15 g. cal./cm2/year, about 30% is utilized in metabolic reaction ( even

more than autotrophs); 47% of energy available unutilized and 3% of it is utilized in
decomposition so that only 20% energy of autotrophs is utilized in secondary net
production of primary carnivores

Process is repeated during transfer of energy from the primary to secondary carnivores and
so on
The Carbon Cycle
Carbon-based organic molecules are essential to all organisms

Photosynthetic organisms convert CO2 to organic molecules that are used by

heterotrophs

Carbon reservoirs include fossil fuels, soils and sediments, solutes in oceans, plant
and animal biomass, the atmosphere, and sedimentary rocks

CO2 is taken up and released through photosynthesis and respiration

Volcanoes and the burning of fossil fuels also contribute CO2 to the atmosphere
 CO2 in
atmosphere
Photosynthesis

Photo- Cellular
synthesis respiration

Burning
of fossil
fuels and
wood Phyto-
plankton
Consumers

Consumers

Decomposition
Primary productivity of an ecosystem is defined as the rate at which radiant energy is converted into
organic substances by photosynthesis or chemo-synthesis by the primary producers.

When organic matter is produced by the primary producers (mainly green plants and some microorganisms),
some of it is oxidized or burnt inside their body and converted into carbon-dioxide which is released during
respiration and is accompanied by loss of energy.

Respiratory loss of energy is a must, because it is required for the maintenance of the organism. Now, the
producers are left with a little less organic matter than what was actually produced by them. This is known as
the net primary production (NPP) and the respiratory loss (R) added to it gives the gross primary production
(GPP). Thus, NPP = GPP – R
Primary production of an ecosystem depends upon the
•solar radiations,
•availability of water and nutrients and upon the type of the plants and
•their chlorophyll content

Productivity of tropical forests and estuaries are the highest. This is because tropical forests have abundant
rainfall, warm temperature congenial for growth, abundant sunlight and a rich diversity of species.
Estuaries get natural energy subsidies in the form of wave currents that bring along with them nutrients
required for production

Deserts on the other hand, have limitations of adequate water supply while Tundra have very low
temperature as limiting factor and hence show low primary production.

Agro-ecosystems get lots of energy subsidies in the form of irrigation water, good quality seeds, fertilizers
and pesticides and show a high productivity of 12,000 K Cal/m2/yr. Still, it is noteworthy that their
productivity is less than that of tropical forests which are not receiving any artificial energy subsidies.

Nature itself has designed its species composition, structure, energy capture and flow, and a closed nutrient
cycling system that ensures a high primary production of 20,000 K Cal/m2/yr.

Also, the qualitative variety of the primary production is enormous in the tropical forests. This makes it all
the more important to conserve our tropical forests.
Secondary Production

The food synthesized by green plants through photosynthesis is the primary production
which is eaten by herbivores.

The plant energy is used up for producing organic matter of the herbivores which, in
turn, is used up by the carnivores.

The amount of organic matter stored by the herbivores or carnivores (in excess of
respiratory loss) is known as
secondary production. The energy stored at consumer level for use by the next trophic
level is thus defined as secondary production