MODULE-2
PHYSICAL LAYER
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Syllabus
2
Physical Layer
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The major function of the physical layer is to move
data in the form of electromagnetic signals across a
transmission medium.
For transmission, data needs to be changed to
signals.
Transmission media work by conducting energy
along a physical path.
Data can be analog or digital.
Classes of Transmission Media
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Unguided Media
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Unguided medium transport electromagnetic waves
without using a physical conductor.
This type of communication is often referred to as
wireless communication.
Signals are normally broadcast through free space
and thus are available to anyone who has a device
capable of receiving them.
Electromagnetic Spectrum
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1KHz = 103 Hz
1 MHz= 106 Hz
1GHz =109 Hz
1 THz =1012 Hz
Unguided Media
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Unguided signals can travel from the source to the
destination in several ways:
ground propagation
sky propagation
line-of-sight propagation
Ground Propagation
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Radio waves travel through the lowest portion
of the atmosphere, surrounding the earth.
These low-frequency signals emanate in
all directions from the transmitting antenna
and follow the curvature of the planet.
Ionosphere is the layer of
atmosphere where
particles exist as ions
Distance depends on the amount of
powerin the signal: The greater the power, the greater
Sky Propagation
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Higher-frequency radio waves radiate
upward into the ionosphere where they are
reflected back to earth.
This type of transmission allows for
greater distances with lower output power.
Line of sight Propagation
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Very high-frequency signals are
transmitted in straight lines directly from
antenna to antenna.
Antennas must be directional,
facing each other and either tall enough
or close enough together not to be affected
by the curvature of the earth.
Line-of-sight propagation is tricky
because radio transmissions cannot be completely
Frequency Band
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The section of the electromagnetic spectrum defined
as radio waves and microwaves is divided into eight
ranges, called bands
Each band is regulated by government authorities.
These bands are rated from very low frequency (VLF)
to extremely high frequency (EHF).
Frequency Band
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Frequency Band
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First Satellite
launched by Soviet
Union : 20.005 and
40.01 MHz.
First Satellite
launched by USA :
108.00 and 108.03
MHz.
First Satellite
launched by India :
148.25 MHz
Frequency Band and Satellite
Communication
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Frequency Band and Mobile Communication
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Proposed spectrum in the 3300-3600 MHz
frequency
Frequency Band and its Applications
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Frequency Band and its Applications
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Wireless Transmission Medium
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Electromagnetic Spectrum
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Wireless Transmission Medium
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Radio Waves
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Waves ranging in frequencies between 3 kHz and 1
GHz are normally called radio waves
Radio waves, for the most part, are omnidirectional.
When an antenna transmits radio waves, they are
propagated in all directions.
A sending antenna sends waves that can be received
by any receiving antenna.
The omnidirectional property has a disadvantage,
too. The radio waves transmitted by one antenna are
susceptible to interference by another antenna that
may send signals using the same frequency or band.
Radio Waves
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Radio waves, particularly those waves that
propagate in the sky mode, can travel long
distances.
This makes radio waves a good candidate for long-
distance broadcasting such as AM radio.
Radio waves, particularly those of low and medium
frequencies, can penetrate walls.
This characteristic can be both an advantage and a
disadvantage. It is an advantage because, for
example, an AM radio can receive signals inside a
building.
It is a disadvantage because we cannot isolate a
communication to just inside or outside a building.
Radio Waves
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The radio wave band is relatively narrow, just under
1 GHz, compared to the microwave band.
When this band is divided into sub bands, the sub
bands are also narrow, leading to a low data rate for
digital communications.
Almost the entire band is regulated by authorities
(e.g., the FCC in the United States). Using any part of
the band requires permission from the authorities
Radio Waves
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Omnidirectional Antenna
Radio waves use omnidirectional antennas that send
out signals in all directions.
Based on the wavelength, strength, and the purpose
of transmission, we can have several types of
antennas
Radio Waves
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Applications
The omnidirectional characteristics of radio waves
make them useful for multicasting, in which there is
one sender but many receivers.
AM and FM radio, television, maritime radio, cordless
phones, and paging are examples of multicasting.
Microwaves
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Electromagnetic waves having frequencies between
1 and 300 GHz are called microwaves.
Microwaves are unidirectional.
When an antenna transmits microwaves, they can be
narrowly focused.
The unidirectional property has an obvious
advantage. A pair of antennas can be aligned
without interfering with another pair of aligned
antennas.
Microwaves
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Microwave propagation is line-of-sight.
Since the towers with the mounted antennas need to
be in direct sight of each other, towers that are far
apart need to be very tall.
The curvature of the earth as well as other blocking
obstacles do not allow two short towers to
communicate by using microwaves.
Repeaters are often needed for long distance
communication.
Microwaves
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Very high-frequency microwaves cannot penetrate
walls. This characteristic can be a disadvantage if
receivers are inside buildings.
The microwave band is relatively wide, almost 299
GHz. Therefore wider sub bands can be assigned,
and a high data rate is possible.
Use of certain portions of the band requires
permission from authorities.
Microwaves
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Unidirectional Antennas
Microwaves need unidirectional antennas that send
out signals in one direction.
Two types of antennas are used for microwave
communications:
the parabolic dish
the horn
Microwaves
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Unidirectional Antennas
A parabolic dish antenna is based on the geometry
of a parabola: Every line parallel to the line of
symmetry (line of sight) reflects off the curve at
angles such that all the lines intersect in a common
point called the focus.
The parabolic dish works as a funnel, catching a wide
Microwaves
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Unidirectional Antennas
Horn antenna looks like a gigantic scoop. Outgoing
transmissions are broadcast up a stem (resembling a
handle) and deflected outward in a series of narrow
parallel beams by the curved head.
Received transmissions are collected by the scooped
shape of the horn, in a manner similar to the
Microwaves
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Applications
Microwaves, due to their unidirectional properties,
are very useful when unicast (one-to-one)
communication which is needed between the sender
and the receiver.
They are used in cellular phones, satellite networks,
and wireless LANs
Infrared
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Infrared waves, with frequencies from 300 GHz to
400 THz can be used for short-range communication.
Infrared waves, having high frequencies, cannot
penetrate walls. This advantageous characteristic
prevents interference between one system and
another
A short-range communication system in one room
cannot be affected by another system in the next
room.
Infrared
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This same characteristic makes infrared signals
useless for long-range communication.
In addition, we cannot use infrared waves outside a
building because the sun’s rays contain infrared
waves that can interfere with the communication.
Infrared
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Applications
The infrared band, almost 400 THz, has an excellent
potential for data transmission. Such a wide
bandwidth can be used to transmit digital data with
a very high data rate.
The Infrared Data Association (IrDA), an association
for sponsoring the use of infrared waves, has
established standards for using these signals for
communication between devices such as keyboards,
mike, PCs, and printers.
Infrared
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Applications
For example, some manufacturers provide a special
port called the IrDA port that allows a wireless
keyboard to communicate with a PC.
Infrared signals defined by IrDA transmit through line
of sight; the IrDA port on the keyboard needs to
point to the PC for transmission to occur
