Unit No.

Short Range Wireless Technologies and

Location Tracking
 Introduction Short Range Wireless Technologies :-
Short-range communications systems characterize a wide range of scenarios, technologies
and requirements. There is no formal definition of such systems though one can always classify
short-range systems according to their typical reach or coverage. We define short range
communications as the systems providing wireless connectivity within a local sphere of interaction.
Short-range systems involve transfer of information from millimeters to a few hundreds of meters.
However, short-range communication systems are not only systems providing wireless connectivity
in the immediate proximity, but in a broader perspective they also define technologies used to
build service access in local areas.
Together with wide/metropolitan area cellular systems, short-range systems represent the
two main developing directions in today’s wireless communications scene. In terms of design rules
and target capabilities, short-range systems have certain commonalities as well as marked
differences from their counterparts, cellular systems. Maximizing the supported data throughput is
quite often one of the main design targets for both types of wireless networks though a detailed
comparison between them is not straightforward.
Bluetooth :-
It is a Wireless Personal Area Network (WPAN) technology and is used for exchanging data
over smaller distances. This technology was invented by Ericson in 1994. It operates in the
unlicensed, industrial, scientific and medical (ISM) band at 2.4 GHz to 2.485 GHz. Maximum
devices that can be connected at the same time are 7. Bluetooth ranges up to 10 meters. It
provides data rates up to 1 Mbps or 3 Mbps depending upon the version.
The spreading technique which it uses is FHSS (Frequency hopping spread spectrum). A
bluetooth network is called piconet and a collection of interconnected piconets is
called scatternet.
Bluetooth Architecture :-
The architecture of bluetooth defines two
types of networks:
Piconet
Scatternet

Piconet Scatternet

In this bluetooth network, device can function In this bluetooth network, device can function
either as master or slave. as master or slave or (master + slave)

It serves smaller coverage area. It serves larger coverage area.

It supports maximum 8 nodes. It supports more than 8 nodes.

It allows less efficient use of available It allows more efficient use of available
bluetooth channel bandwidth. bluetooth channel bandwidth.
 Piconet :-
Piconet is a type of bluetooth network that contains one primary node called
master node and seven active secondary nodes called slave nodes. Thus, we can say that
there are total of 8 active nodes which are present at a distance of 10 meters. The
communication between the primary and secondary node can be one-to-one or one-to-
many. Possible communication is only between the master and slave; Slave-slave
communication is not possible. It also have 255 parked nodes, these are secondary nodes
and cannot take participation in communication unless it get converted to the active state.
Scatternet :-
It is formed by using various piconets. A slave that is present in one piconet
can be act as master or we can say primary in other piconet. This kind of node can receive
message from master in one piconet and deliver the message to its slave into the other
piconet where it is acting as a slave. This type of node is refer as bridge node. A station
cannot be master in two piconets.
Bluetooth protocol stack :-
Radio (RF) layer: It performs modulation/demodulation of the data into RF signals. It
defines the physical characteristics of bluetooth transceiver. It defines two types of physical
link: connection-less and connection-oriented.
Baseband Link layer: It performs the connection establishment within a piconet.
Bluetooth protocol stack
 Link Manager protocol layer: It performs the management of the already established
links. It also includes authentication and encryption processes.
Logical Link Control and Adaption protocol layer: It is also known as the heart of the
bluetooth protocol stack. It allows the communication between upper and lower layers of
the bluetooth protocol stack. It packages the data packets received from upper layers into
the form expected by lower layers. It also performs the segmentation and multiplexing.
SDP layer: It is short for Service Discovery Protocol. It allows to discover the services
available on another bluetooth enabled device.
RF comm layer: It is short for Radio Frontend Component. It provides serial interface
with WAP and OBEX.
OBEX: It is short for Object Exchange. It is a communication protocol to exchange
objects between 2 devices.
WAP: It is short for Wireless Access Protocol. It is used for internet access.
TCS: It is short for Telephony Control Protocol. It provides telephony service.
Application layer: It enables the user to interact with the application.
Advantages :-
Low cost.
Easy to use.
It can also penetrate through walls.
It creates an ad-hoc connection immediately without any wires.
It is used for voice and data transfer.
Disadvantages :-
It can be hacked and hence, less secure.
It has slow data transfer rate: 3 Mbps.
It has small range: 10 meters.

Bluetooth frame structure :-

 A Bluetooth frame with basic rate :- It has three parts, access code, header and
data as shown in the following diagram−
The various fields are−
Access Code− A 72-bit field containing synchronization bits to identify the master.
Header− A 54-bit field containing 18-bit patterns repeated thrice, having the
following subfields−
Address− A 3 bit-field that can identify a maximum of seven slaves numbered 1 to 7.
An address 0 depicts broadcast.
Type− A 4-bit field that identifies the type of data from upper layers. It identifies
whether the frame is ACL, SCO, poll or null.
F− A bit for flow control. When the device cannot receive more frames, F is set to 1.
A− A bit for acknowledgement, for piggybacking an ACK to the end of the frame.
S− A bit denoting sequence number of the frame for detect retransmission. Only a
single bit suffices since stop and wait protocol is used.
Checksum− An 8-bit field containing checksum for error detection.
Data− A variable length field ranging from 0 to 2744 bits that contains data or
control information from upper layers.
 Bluetooth Frame Format with Enhanced Data Rate :-
The frame for enhanced data rate contains additionally a guard field and a trailer as
shown in the following diagram−
The additional fields and changes in data field are−
Guard− A 16-bit field containing a synchronization pattern that enables to switch to
higher data speed while transmitting the data field.
Trailer− A 2-bit field denoting end of the variable length data field.
Data− A variable length field ranging from 0 to 2744 bits(two to three times high)
that contains high volume payload from upper layers.
ZigBee :-
In this present communication world, there are numerous high data rate
communication standards that are available, but none of these meet the sensors’ and
control devices’ communication standards. These high-data-rate communication standards
require low-latency and low-energy consumption even at lower bandwidths. The available
proprietary wireless systems’ ZigBee technology is low-cost and low-power consumption
and its excellent and superb characteristics make this communication best suited
for several embedded applications, industrial control, and home automation, and so on.
 The ZigBee technology range for transmission distances mainly ranges from 10 –
100 meters based on the output of power as well as environmental characteristics.
ZigBee Technology :-
ZigBee communication is specially built for control and sensor networks on IEEE
802.15.4 standard for wireless personal area networks (WPANs), and it is the product from
ZigBee alliance. This communication standard defines physical and Media Access Control
(MAC) layers to handle many devices at low-data rates. These ZigBee's WPANs operate at
868 MHz, 902-928MHz, and 2.4 GHz frequencies. The data rate of 250 kbps is best suited
for periodic as well as intermediate two-way transmission of data between sensors and
controllers.
ZigBee is a low-cost and low-powered mesh network widely deployed for
controlling and monitoring applications where it covers 10-100 meters within the range.
This communication system is less expensive and simpler than the other proprietary short-
range wireless sensor networks as Bluetooth and Wi-Fi.
ZigBee supports different network configurations for the master to master or
master to slave communications. And also, it can be operated in different modes as a
result the battery power is conserved. ZigBee networks are extendable with the use of
routers and allow many nodes to interconnect with each other for building a wider area
network.
 ZigBee Architecture :-
ZigBee system structure consists of three different types of devices as ZigBee
Coordinator, Router, and End device. Every ZigBee network must consist of at least one
coordinator which acts as a root and bridge of the network. The coordinator is responsible for
handling and storing the information while performing receiving and transmitting data
operations.
ZigBee routers act as intermediary devices that permit data to pass to and fro through
them to other devices. End devices have limited functionality to communicate with the parent
nodes such that the battery power is saved as shown in the figure. The number of routers,
coordinators, and end devices depends on the type of networks such as star, tree, and mesh
networks.
ZigBee protocol architecture :- It consists of a stack of various layers where
IEEE 802.15.4 is defined by physical and MAC layers while this protocol is completed by
accumulating ZigBee's own network and application layers.
Physical Layer: This layer does modulation and demodulation operations upon
transmitting and receiving signals respectively. This layer’s frequency, data rate, and a
number of channels are given below.
MAC Layer: This layer is responsible for reliable transmission of data by accessing
different networks with the carrier sense multiple access collision avoidances (CSMA). This
also transmits the beacon frames for synchronizing communication.
 Fig. ZigBee Network Fig.
ZigBee protocol Architecture

Network Layer: This layer takes care of all network-related operations such as network
setup, end device connection, and disconnection to network, routing, device configurations,
etc.
Application Support Sub-Layer: This layer enables the services necessary for ZigBee
device objects and application objects to interface with the network layers for data managing
services. This layer is responsible for matching two devices according to their services and
 Application Framework: It provides two types of data services as key-value pair and
generic message services. The generic message is a developer-defined structure, whereas
the key-value pair is used for getting attributes within the application objects. ZDO provides
an interface between application objects and the APS layer in ZigBee devices. It is
responsible for detecting, initiating, and binding other devices to the network.
Zigbee Topologies
Zigbee supports several network topologies; however, the most commonly used
configurations are star, mesh, and cluster tree topologies. Any topology consists of one or
more coordinators. In a star topology, the network consists of one coordinator which is
responsible for initiating and managing the devices over the network. All other devices are
called end devices that directly communicate with the coordinator.
This is used in industries where all the endpoint devices are needed to
communicate with the central controller, and this topology is simple and easy to deploy. In
mesh and tree topologies, the Zigbee network is extended with several routers where the
coordinator is responsible for staring them. These structures allow any device to
communicate with any other adjacent node for providing redundancy to the data.
If any node fails, the information is routed automatically to other devices by these
topologies. As redundancy is the main factor in industries, hence mesh topology is mostly
used. In a cluster-tree network, each cluster consists of a coordinator with leaf nodes, and
these coordinators are connected to the parent coordinator which initiates the entire network.
 Due to the advantages of Zigbee technology like low cost and low power operating
modes and its topologies, this short-range communication technology is best suited for
several applications compared to other proprietary communications, such as Bluetooth, Wi-
Fi, etc. some of these comparisons such as range of Zigbee, standards, etc., are given below.
Applications of Zigbee Technology :-
The applications of ZigBee technology include the following.
Industrial Automation: In manufacturing and production
industries, a communication link continually monitors various
parameters and critical equipment. Hence Zigbee considerably
reduces this communication cost as well as optimizes the control
process for greater reliability.
Home Automation: Zigbee is perfectly suited for controlling home appliances remotely
as a lighting system control, appliance control, heating, and cooling system control, safety
equipment operations and control, surveillance, and so on.
Smart Metering: Zigbee remote operations in smart metering include energy
consumption response, pricing support, security over power theft, etc.
 Smart Grid monitoring: Zigbee operations in this smart grid involve
remote temperature monitoring, fault locating, reactive power management, and so on.
ZigBee technology is used to build engineering projects like wireless fingerprint
attendance system and home automation.
Z-Wave Technology :-
Z-wave technology based devices operates in ISM band. It is developed for low
bandwidth data communication applications such as security sensors, home automation,
alarms etc. The following section mentions frequencies used in z-wave. It uses 868.42 MHz
in Europe and 908.42MHz in USA. Basic features of z-wave technology are speed 9.6, 40 &
100 kbps, indoor range 30m & outdoor range 100m. Z wave architecture is master & slave
in mesh topology up 232 nodes. It is widely used in IoT (Internet of Things) due to low
power and low data rate.
 The z-wave network consists of controllers (one primary controller and more than
one secondary controllers) and slaves. Controller devices are the nodes in a z-wave
network which initiates control commands. It also sends out the commands to other nodes.
The slave devices are the nodes which replies based on command received and also
execute the commands. Slave nodes also forward the commands to other nodes in the
network. This makes it possible for controller to establish communication with the nodes
who are not in radio frequency region.
Controllers: A controller device will have full routing table for this mesh network
and it will host it. Hence controller can communicate with all the nodes of z-wave network.
There are two types of controllers viz. primary and secondary.
The controller which creates new z-wave network initially will become primary
controller. This primary controller is master controller in the network and there will be only
one in each z-wave network. Primary controller will have capability to include and exclude
the nodes in the network. Hence primary controller always keeps latest topology of the
network. Primary controller also takes care of managing allocation of node IDs.
The controllers which are added to the z-wave network using the primary controller
are known as secondary controllers. They do not have capability to include or exclude any
nodes. They will get copies of the routing tables from primary controller.
 Slaves: The slave devices/nodes in z-wave network receive the commands and
performs action based on the commands. These slave nodes are unable to transmit
information directly to the other slave nodes or controllers unless they are instructed to do
so in the commands. The slave nodes do not compute routing tables. They can store
routing tables. They will act as a repeater.
Home ID: The z-wave protocol uses Home ID field to separate the networks from
each other. It is 32 bit unique identifier which will be pre-programmed in all the controller
devices. At the start, all the slave nodes will have Home ID value as zero. All the slave
devices need Home ID value in order to communicate in the z-wave network. This will be
communicated to all by the controller. Controllers exchange Home ID which makes it
possible for more than one controller to control slave nodes.
Node ID: This node ID is 8 bit value. Similar to Home ID, they are also assigned to
slave nodes by controller. Node ID’s are used in order to address individual nodes in a z-
wave network. These Node ID’s are unique within a network defined by a unique Home ID.
Z wave Protocol Architecture :-
The z-wave protocol layers main function is to communicate very short messages of
few bytes long from a control unit to one or more z-wave nodes. It is a low bandwidth and
half duplex protocol to establish reliable wireless communication. Z-wave protocol stack
need not have to take care of large amount of data as well as any kind of time critical or
streaming data.
 As shown in the fig-1, z-wave protocol stack consists of 5 layers viz. PHY layer, MAC
layer, Transport layer, network layer and application layer. The security layer is not defined
in z-wave open protocol specifications and hence it is implementation specific. Following
are the major functions of these protocol layers.
➤ Physical layer takes care of modulation and RF channel assignment as well
preamble addition at the transmitter and synchronization at the receiver using preamble.
➤ MAC layer takes care of Home ID and Node ID, controls the medium between
nodes based on collision avoidance algorithm and backoff
algorithm.
➤ Transport layer takes care of transmission and
reception of frames, takes care of retransmission, ACK
frame transmission and insertion of checksum.
➤ Network layer takes care of frame routing,
topology scan and routing table updates.
➤Application layer takes care of control of payloads
in the frames received or to be transmitted.
 z-wave frame structure :-

Z Wave applications :-
1. Smart Hubs :- Smart hubs are the central controlling unit of every smart home
application. Wide range of appliances, devices, power plugs, locking units, security
systems, access control units, routers, sensors and voice enabled applications can be
connected and configured using smart hubs.
Smart hubs will be connected to internet (using an Ethernet port or using wireless
LAN) and all devices can be accessed from anywhere using an internet connection.
 2. Smart Lighting:- Smart lighting is one of the most commonly used applications
of smart home technologies like Z-wave. Light intensity can be wirelessly controlled and
configured using a mobile phone app which can be accessed from anywhere.
With some simple configuration of using a web browser, users can add new
devices, configure functions, schedule particular task for specific devices etc. Smart
lighting technology can contribute to energy saving efforts with efficient solutions.
3. Smart Locks:- Smart locks are getting popular now a days. Z-wave technology
offers wide range of smart access control solutions with user friendly touch panels and
keypad. Fingerprint scanners and highly secure mode of access can be configured using Z-
wave technology.
Users can be easily added to the data base and special access privileges can be
granted for selected members.
4. Smart Sensors :- Smart sensors are inevitable components of any smart home
and Internet of Things applications. Application areas of smart sensors uses Z-wave
technology are thermostats, humidity sensors, proximity sensors, RF ID tags, motion
detectors, water level and flood sensors, smoke and gas sensors etc…
Smart sensor technology is continuously evolving, new generation smart sensors are
compact in size and energy efficient (offers long battery life).
 5. Smart home automation:- Z-wave provides advanced home automation
solutions. Any appliances compatible with Z-wave technology can be added to smart home
network. These devices and home appliances can be securely controlled using Smartphone
apps.
Z-wave home automation solutions include smart power plugs, smart energy outlet, power
module, temperature and smoke alarms, smart window covering (using motor control), smart
energy meters and lighting controls etc.
6. Security and Alarm :- Z-wave provides smart solutions for Indoor and outdoor
security, monitoring systems and alarms. Temperature and smoke detectors will continuously
monitor and trigger alarms when the measured level exceeds set threshold value.
7. Voice controlled application:- Voice enabled applications are one of the most
advanced application in home automation. Voice commands can be used to activate and
control devices for special tasks. It gives greater convenience for controlling devices and
applications.
8. Water management:- Accurate water and flood sensors are used in water
management and smart city systems. Smart sensors will monitor water level round the clock
and triggers once the level exceeds.
9. Smart energy management:- Smart energy management is yet one of the
significant area in home automation. Energy management solution support wide range of
applications like smart power modules, energy meters and smart plugs for appliances.
Smart lighting can save lot of energy by efficient utilization. It can be configured to turn off
or dim the light when a person leaves a room. Air conditioners, smart windows, heaters, fan
or anything can be wirelessly controlled using smart energy modules.
10. Smart USB :-Smart USB will convert any personal computer running Z-wave
software to a smart hub for home automation applications. Any compatible devices can be
connected to the networks and easily control them.
Z wave Zigbee
Z wave provides simple system user easily Zigbee required some power and device can
setup by itself. last up to seven year on one set of battery.
Z wave communication idel for someone with Zigbee communication idel for someone with
basic understanding of technology. solid understanding of technology.
Z wave is more expensive than Zigbee. Zigbee cheaper than Z wave.
Z wave is a protocol for communication
Zigbee is open standard wireless connection.
between devices used for home automation.
GFSK modulation technology used BPSK, OQPSK modulation technology used.
It transmit 50m distance. It transmit 100m distance.
It uses Sub1G band. It uses 2.4GHZ band.

There is no international standard. There is a international standard IEEE8.02.15.4.

 RFID :- Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) is the application of radio waves to read and
capture information stored on tags affixed to objects. RFID readers are installed at tracking
points and can read information from tags when they come into range, which can be of
several feet radius. A tag need not be within direct line-of-sight of the reader to be tracked.
RFID is used to check identities and track inventory, assets and people. RFID tags can be
attached to a variety of objects like cash, clothing, baggage, parcels, and even implanted in
animals and people.
Working Principle :-
There are two parts in a RFID system−
a tag or label
a reader
RFID tags are affixed on the object and have a transmitter and a receiver embedded on it.
It contains the serial number that uniquely identifies a specific object. The tags have two parts−
1 a microchip to store and process information, and
2 an antenna to receive and transmit a signal.
The RFID reader (also called interrogator) captures the information encoded on the tag
using an antenna. It is a two-way radio transmitter-receiver that emits a signal for the tag. The
tag responds by sending the information embedded in its memory. The reader captures the
results and transmits to the RFID computer program, which then performs the necessary
processing.
 Types of RFID tags
RFID tags are categorized into three types according to power−
1 Passive tags− They use the radio wave energy of the reader to transmit its ID
to the reader.
2 Active tags− They are equipped with an on-board battery and transmit their ID
periodically.
3 Battery – assisted Passive− They have a small battery on-board and are
activated only within the range of an RFID reader.
According to readability, RFID tags are as follows−
1 Read-only tags− They have a factory-assigned ID which serves as a key into a
database.
2 Read/write tags− In these tags, object-specific data can be written and
retrieved by the system user.
3 Field programmable tags− These are written once by the system, thereby
they can be read multiple times.
4 Blank tags− They may be electronically written by the user.
 Types of RFID readers
RFID readers are categorized into two types according to power−p>
1 Passive readers− They can only receive signals from active tags.
2 Active readers− They can transmits interrogator signals to both passive, active as
well as battery-assisted tags and also receives replies from them.
According to position, RFID readers are of two types−
1 Fixed readers− They are used to create a highly defined and tightly controlled
interrogation area. Tags are read when they enter this area. Active readers are deployed here.
2 Mobile readers− They are used for creating handheld tag reading devices. They
may be also installed in moving vehicles.
RFID frequencies :- LF, HF, and UHF
Similar to how a radio must be tuned to different frequencies to hear different
channels, RFID tags and readers have to be tuned to the same frequency in order to
communicate. There are several different frequencies an RFID system can use. Generally, the
most common are
Low frequency, or LF, (125 - 134 kHz)
High frequency, or HF, (13.56 MHz)
Ultra-high frequency, or UHF, (433, and 860-960 MHz)
 Radio waves behave differently at the various frequencies, so it is imperative
to select the right frequency for your application.
Low-frequency tags:- It have a long wavelength and are better able to penetrate
thin metallic substances. Additionally, LF RFID systems are ideal for reading objects with
high-water content, such as fruit or beverages, but the read range is limited to
centimeters or inches. Typical LF RFID applications include access control and
animal tagging.
 High-frequency tags:- It work fairly well on objects made of metal and can
work around goods with medium to high water content. Typically, HF RFID systems
work in ranges of inches, but they can have a maximum read range of about three
feet (1 meter). Typical HF RFID applications include tracking library books, patient
flow tracking, and transit tickets.
UHF frequencies:- It typically offer much better read range (inches to 50+ ft.
depending on the RFID system setup) and can transfer data faster (i.e. read many
more tags per second) than low- and high-frequencies. However, because UHF radio
waves have a shorter wavelength, their signal is more likely to be attenuated (or
weakened) and they cannot pass through metal or water. Due to their high data
transfer rate, UHF RFID tags are well suited for many items at once, such as boxes of
goods as they pass through a dock door into a warehouse or racers as they cross a
finish line. Also, due to the longer read range, other common UHF RFID applications
include electronic toll collection and parking access control.
RFID Applications :- RFID, Radio Frequency Identification is a technology, which
includes wireless data capture and transaction processing. Proximity (short range)
and Vicinity (long range) are two major application areas where RFID technology is
used. Track and trace applications are long range or vicinity applications. This
technology provides additional functionality and benefits for product authentication.
 Asset Tracking:- Static or in-motion assets tracking or locating, like a healthcare facility,
wheelchairs or IV pumps in, laptops in a corporation and servers in a data center, was not so easy
task.
User can instantly determine the general location of tagged assets anywhere within the
facility with the help of active RFID technology. Control point detection zones at strategic locations
throughout the facility allow the user to define logical zones and monitor high traffic areas. Tagged
assets moving through these control points provide instant location data.
Asset tracking applications will see an almost vertical growth curve in the coming years and
the growth rate in this area will be much higher than the growth rate of general RFID market.
People Tracking: People tracking system are used just as asset tracking system.
Hospitals and jails are most general tracking required places.
Hospital uses RFID tags for tracking their special patients. In emergency patient and
other essential equipment can easily track. It will be mainly very useful in mental care
hospitals where doctors can track each and every activity of the patient. Hospitals also use
these RFID tags for locating and tracking all the activities of the newly born babies.
The best use of the people tracking system will be in jails. It becomes an easy
tracking system to track their inmates. Many jails of different US states like Michigan,
California, and Arizona are already using RFID-tracking systems to keep a close eye on jail
inmates.
 Document tracking:- This is most common problem. Availability of large amount of data and
documents brings lots of problem in document management system. An RFID document-tracking
system saves time and money by substantially reducing:
Time spent searching for lost document
The financial and legal impact associated with losing documents.
Government Library:- Many government libraries use barcode and electromagnetic strips to
track various assets. RFID technology uses for reading these barcodes unlike the self-barcode
reader RFID powered barcode reader can read multiple items simultaneously. This reduces queues
and increases the number of customers using self-check, which in turn will reduce the staff
necessary at the circulation desks.
Healthcare:- Patient safety is a big challenge of healthcare vertical. Reducing medication
errors, meeting new standards, staff shortages, and reducing costs are the plus points of use of
RFID solutions. RFID wristbands containing patient records and medication history address several
of these concerns.
Manufacturing & Aerospace:- RFID technology provides an easy way to manage a huge and
laborious manufacturing process. It offers all the benefits of small production parts to batch,
processes and manufacturing. This type of process helps in better analysis, reduce and eliminate
bottlenecks, reduced time in locating parts and products and production process based sensors can
be installed to alert any anomalies. Aerospace industry and Department of Defense have a lot to
gain from RFID integration into their production and process lines. Boeing and airbus, according
to the direction of US Federal Aviation Administration, make it mandatory to put an appropriate
tracking mechanism to track the aircraft parts.
 Global Positioning System (GPS) :-
Global Positioning System (GPS) is a navigation system based on satellite. It has created
the revolution in navigation and position location. It is mainly used in positioning, navigation,
monitoring and surveying applications.
The major advantages of satellite navigation are real time positioning and timing
synchronization. That’s why satellite navigation systems have become an integral part in most of
the applications, where mobility is the key parameter.
A complete operational GPS space segment contains twenty-four satellites in MEO. These
satellites are made into six groups so that each group contains four satellites. The group of four
satellites is called as one constellation. Any two adjacent constellations are separated by 60
degrees in longitude.
The orbital period of each satellite is approximately equal to twelve hours. Hence, all
satellites revolve around the earth two times on every day. At any time, the GPS receivers will get
the signals from at least four satellites.
GPS Codes and Services :- Each GPS satellite transmits two signals, L1 and L2 are of
different frequencies. Trilateration is a simple method for finding the position (Latitude, Longitude,
Elevation) of GPS receiver. By using this method, the position of an unknown point can be measured
from three known points
GPS Codes :- Following are the two types of GPS codes.
Coarse Acquisition code or C/A code
The signal, L1 is modulated with 1.023 Mbps pseudo random bit sequence. This code is
called as Coarse Acquisition code or C/A code and it is used by the public.
The signal, L2 is modulated with 10.23 Mbps pseudo random bit sequence. This
code is called as Precise code or P code and it is used in military positioning systems.
Generally, this P code is transmitted in an encrypted format and it is called as Y code
The P code gives better measurement accuracy when compared to C/A code, since
the bit rate of P code is greater than the bit rate of C/A code.
GPS Services :- Following are the two types of services provided by GPS.
Precise Positioning Service (PPS)
Standard Positioning Service (SPS)
PPS receivers keep tracking of both C/A code and P code on two signals, L1 and
L2. The Y code is decrypted at the receiver in order to obtain P code.
SPS receivers keep tracking of only C/A code on signal, L1.
 Components of GPS system :-
The technical and operational characteristics of the GPS are organized into three
distinct segments: the space segment, the operational control segment (OCS), and the
user equipment segment. The GPS signals, which are broadcast by each satellite and
carry data to both user equipment and the ground control facilities, link the segments into
one system. Figure 1-1 briefly characterizes the signals and segments of the GPS.
 Space Segment :- The GPS constellation consists of 24 satellites arranged in 6 orbital
planes of 55- degree inclination, 20,051 kilometers (12,532 miles) above the Earth. Each satellite
completes one orbit in one-half of a sidereal day and, therefore, passes over the same location on
earth once every sidereal day, approximately 23 hours and 56 minutes. With this orbital
configuration and number of satellites, a user at any location on Earth will have at least four
satellites in view 24 hours per day
Operational Control Segment :- The GPS OCS consists of the master control station
(MCS), located at three of the four remote monitor stations. The four remote monitor stations
contribute to satellite control by tracking each GPS satellite in orbit, monitoring its navigational
signal, and relaying this information to the MCS. The four stations can track and monitor the
where abouts of each GPS satellite 20 to 21 hours per day. Land-based and space-based
communications connect the remote monitoring stations with the MCS.
User Segment (Equipment) :- GPS user equipment varies widely in cost and complexity,
depending on the receiver design and application. Receiver sets, which currently vary in price
from approximately $135 or less to $30,000, can range from fairly simple devices that provide
only basic positioning information to complex multichannel units that track all satellites in view
and perform a variety of functions.
Most GPS receivers consist of three basic components:
1 an antenna, which receives the signal and, in some cases, has anti-jamming capabilities;
2 a receiver-processor unit, which converts the radio signal to a useable navigation solution; and
3 a control/display unit, which displays the positioning information and provides an interface for
 GPS Receiver :- There exists only one-way transmission from satellite to
users in GPS system. Hence, the individual user does not need the transmitter, but only
a GPS receiver. It is mainly used to find the accurate location of an object. It performs
this task by using the signals received from satellites.
The block diagram of GPS receiver is shown in below figure.

The function of each block present in GPS receiver is mentioned below.

Receiving Antenna receives the satellite signals. It is mainly, a circularly
polarized antenna.
Low Noise Amplifier (LNA) amplifies the weak received signal
Down converter converts the frequency of received signal to an Intermediate
Frequency (IF) signal.
IF Amplifier amplifies the Intermediate Frequency (IF) signal.
 ADC performs the conversion of analog signal, which is obtained from IF amplifier
to digital. Assume, the sampling & quantization blocks are also present in ADC (Analog to
Digital Converter).
DSP (Digital Signal Processor) generates the C/A code.
Microprocessor performs the calculation of position and provides the timing
signals in order to control the operation of other digital blocks. It sends the useful
information to Display unit in order to display it on the screen.
Applications of GPS system :-
1-Aviation Almost all modern aircraft are fitted with multiple GPS receivers. This
provides pilots (and sometimes passengers) with a real-time aircraft position and map of
each flight’s progress. GPS also allows airline operators to pre-select the safest, fastest
and most fuel-efficient routes to each destination, and ensure that each route is followed
as closely as possible when the flight is underway.
2- Marine When high accuracy GPS is fitted to boats and ships, it allows captains
to navigate through unfamiliar harbors, shipping channels and waterways without
running aground or hitting known obstacles. GPS is also used to position and map
dredging operations in rivers, wharfs and sandbars, so other boats know precisely where
it is deep enough for them to operate.
 3- Farming Farmers rely on repeat planting season after season to maximize their crop
productions. By putting GPS receivers on tractors and other agricultural equipment, farmers
can map their plantations and ensure that they return to exactly the same areas when sewing
their seeds in future. This strategy also allows farmers to continue working in low visibility
conditions such as fog and darkness, as each piece of machinery is guided by its GPS position
instead of visual references. High accuracy GPS is also used to map soil sample locations,
allowing farmers to see where the soil is most fertile across individual fields or even entire
farms
4- Science Scientists use GPS technology to conduct a wide range of experiments and
research, ranging from biology to physics to earth sciences. Traditionally, when scientists
wanted to understand where and how far animals roam, they had to tag animals with metal or
plastic bands and then follow them to various locations to monitor their movement. Today,
scientists can fit animals with GPS collars or tags that automatically log the animal’s
movement and transmit the information via satellite back to the researchers. This provides
them with more detailed information about the animal’s movements without having to
relocate specific animals.
Earth scientists also use GPS technology to conduct a wide range of research. By
installing high accuracy GPS receivers on physical features such as glaciers or landslips,
scientists can observe and study both the speed and direction of movement, helping them to
understand how landscapes change over time. Similarly, GPS receivers can be installed on
solid bedrock to help understand very small and very slow changes in tectonic plate motion
across the world.
 5- Surveying Surveyors are responsible for mapping and measuring features on the
earth’s surface and under water with high accuracy. This includes things like determining
land boundaries, monitoring changes in the shape of structures or mapping the sea floor.
Surveyors have historically required line-of-sight between their instruments in order to
undertake such work, but the availability of high accuracy GPS receivers has reduced the
need for this. GPS can either be setup over a single point to establish a reference marker,
or it can be used in a moving configuration to map out the boundaries of various features.
This data can then be transferred into mapping software to create very quick and detailed
maps for customers.
6- Military The GPS system was originally developed by the United States
Department of Defence for use by the US military, but was later made available for public
use. Some countries have even decided to develop their own satellite navigation networks
for use during wartimes.
Today, GPS is used to map the location of vehicles and other assets on various
battlefields in real time, which helps to manage resources and protect soldiers on the
ground. GPS technology is also fitted to military vehicles and other hardware such as
missiles, providing them with tracking and guidance to various targets at all times of the
day and in all weather conditions.
 Thanks
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