Module-5

WMC(22EC61)
Topics covered in Module-5:
Wireless Network Technologies:
Bluetooth technology: Features, architecture, frequency band, IEEE 802.15.1.
RFID: concept, frequency band, classification of RFID tags, applications.
WMAN technology: IEEE 802.16 WMAN and IEEE 802.16a Wimax.
WLAN-Wi-Fi technology: Features, architecture, frequency band, IEEE 802.11
LoRaWAN: Features, architecture, frequency band applications.
Wireless Network Technologies
• Wireless network technologies allow devices to communicate and
share data without physical cables, using radio waves, infrared, or
satellite signals.
• They enable mobility, flexibility, and easy deployment across homes,
businesses, and outdoor environments.
• Major types include Wi-Fi (for local area networking), cellular
networks like 4G and 5G (for wide-area mobile communication),
Bluetooth (for short-range device connections), and satellite
communication (for remote and global coverage).
• Wireless technologies have become essential for internet access,
smart devices, and emerging applications like IoT (Internet of Things)
and autonomous vehicles.
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Bluetooth Technology
• Bluetooth wireless technology is an open specification for a low-cost, low-power,
short-range radio technology for ad-hoc wireless communication of voice and
data anywhere in the world.
• It is an always-on, short-range radio hookup that resides on a microchip. It is a
short-range digital radio to interconnect a variety of devices Cell phones, PDA,
notebook computers, modems, cordless phones, pagers, laptop computers,
printers, cameras by developing a single-chip, low-cost, radio-based wireless
network technology
• 1994 – Ericsson study on a wireless technology to link mobile phones &
accessories made Bluetooth’s development. First specification released in July
1999.
• The name ‘Bluetooth’ was named after 10th century Viking king in Denmark
Harald Bluetooth who united and controlled Denmark and Norway. The name
was adopted because Bluetooth wireless technology is expected to unify the
telecommunications and computing industries.
• 5(Ericsson, Intel, IBM, Nokia, Toshiba) companies joined to form the Bluetooth
Special Interest Group (SIG) in 1998. Now more than 2000 organizations are in
the SIG
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 Specifications
• Operates in licensed exempt ISM band at 2.4GHz
• Uses frequency hoping spread spectrum
• Omni directional, no requiring line of sight
• Bluetooth offers data speeds of up to 1 Mbps up to 10 meters (Short range
wireless radio technology )-extend up to 30m
• Modulation type:GMSK
• Power transmission:1mW to 100mW
• Number of devices supported: up to 8
• Devices can communicate in a small network called a piconet. Ten of these
piconets can coexist in the same coverage range of the Bluetooth radio.
• To provide security, each link is encoded and protected against
eavesdropping (128 bits keys)
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 FH-CDMA is a SS based multiple access technique, which does repeated switching of frequencies during
radio transmission, often to minimize the effectiveness of the unauthorized interception or jamming of
telecommunications. Bluetooth uses spread-spectrum frequency hopping.
In this technique, a device will use 79 individual, randomly chosen frequencies within a designated range
Transmitters change frequency 1600 times a second.
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Use cases of Bluetooth

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Protocol Architecture

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 Bluetooth is defined as a layered protocol architecture consisting of core protocols, cable
replacement and telephony control protocol, and adopted protocols.
The core protocols form a five-layer stack consisting 0f the following elements:
• Radio: Specifies details of the air interface, including. frequency, the use of frequency
hopping, modulation scheme, and transmit power.
• Baseband: Concerned with connection establishment' within a piconet, addressing,
packet format, timing, and power control.
• Link manager protocol (LMP): Responsible for Iink setup between Bluetooth devices and
ongoing link management. This includes security aspects such as authentication and
encryption, plus the control and negotiation of baseband packet sizes.
• Logical link control and adaptation protocol (L2CAP): Adapts upper-layer protocols to the
baseband layer. L2CAP provides other connectionless and connection-oriented services.
• Service discovery protocol (SDP): Device information, services, and the characteristics of
the services can be queried to enable the establishment of a connection between two or
more Bluetooth devices.
• RFCOMM is the cable replacement protocol include in the Bluetooth specification.
RFCOMM presents a virtual serial port that is designed to make replacement of cable
technologies as transparent as possible.

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• Bluetooth specifies a telephony control protocol. TCS BIN (telephony control
specification-binary) is a bit-oriented protocol that defines the call control signaling for
the establishment of speech and data calls between Bluetooth devices. In addition, it
defines mobility management procedures for handling groups of Bluetooth TCS devices.
• The adopted protocols are defined in specifications issued by other standards making
organizations and incorporated into the overall Bluetooth architecture. The Bluetooth
strategy is to invent only necessary protocols and use existing standards whenever
possible. The adopted protocols include the following:
• PPP: The point-to-point protocol is an Internet standard protocol for transporting IP
datagrams over a point-to-point link.
• TCP,UDP, IP: These are the foundation protocols of the TCP/IP protocol suite.
• OBEX: The object exchange protocol is a session-Ievel protocol developed by the Infrared
Data Association (IrDA) for the exchange of objects. OBEX provides functionality similar to
that of HTTP, but in a simpler fashion. It also provides a model for representing objects
and opera ions. Examples of content formats transferred by OBEX are vCard and
vCalendar, which provide the format of an electronic business card and personal calendar
entries and scheduling information, respectively.
• WAEIWAP: Bluetooth incorporates the wireless application environment and the wireless
application protocol into its architecture.

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IEEE 802.15.1 PAN standard
▪ IEEE 802.15.1 is a wireless communication protocol standard developed for Wireless
Personal Area Networks (WPANs), and it is based on Bluetooth technology.
▪ It defines how devices communicate over short distances (typically within 10 meters)
with low power consumption.

Key points about IEEE 802.15.1:

▪ It operates in the 2.4 GHz ISM band, which is available worldwide without a license.
▪ Uses Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS) to reduce interference and improve
reliability.
▪ Provides data rates up to 721 kbps (in earlier Bluetooth versions).
▪ Supports voice and data transfer, making it useful for applications like wireless headsets,
keyboards, mice, and personal gadgets.
▪ Focuses on low-cost, low-power, and short-range communication.
▪ Was mainly aligned with Bluetooth v1.1 and v1.2 specifications.

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RFID: concept, frequency band, classification of RFID tags,
applications.
In recent years automatic identification procedures (Auto-ID) have become very popular in many service
industries, purchasing and distribution logistics, industry, manufacturing companies and material flow
systems. Automatic identification procedures exist to provide information about people, animals, goods
and products in transit.

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 Technology Overview
• RFID (Radio Frequency Identification) is a wireless technology used for identifying and tracking
objects using radio waves.
• It consists of two main parts:
• RFID tags (also called transponders), which are small electronic devices attached to objects.
• RFID readers (also called interrogators), which emit radio waves and receive signals from RFID tags.
• When an RFID tag comes into the range of a reader, it transmits stored data (like a unique ID) back to
the reader. This communication can happen without direct line of sight and can cover a few
centimeters to several meters, depending on the system.

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• A reader typically contains a radio frequency module (transmitter
and receiver), a control unit and a coupling element to the
transponder. In addition, many readers are fitted with an additional
interface (RS 232, RS 485, etc.) to enable them to forward the data
received to another system (PC, robot control system, etc.).
• The transponder, which represents the actual data-carrying device of
an RFID system, normally consists of a coupling element and an
electronic microchip. When the transponder, which does not usually
possess its own voltage supply (battery), is not within the
interrogation zone of a reader it is totally passive. The transponder is
only activated when it is within the interrogation zone of a reader.
The power required to activate the transponder is supplied to the
transponder through the coupling unit (contactless), as are the
timing pulse and data.
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Frequency, Range and Coupling
• RFID systems are operated at widely differing frequencies, ranging from 135 kHz
long wave to 5.8 GHz in the microwave range.
• Electric, magnetic and electromagnetic fields are used for the physical coupling.
• The achievable range of the system varies from a few millimetres to above 15 m.
• RFID systems with a very small range, typically in the region of up to 1 cm, are
known as close coupling systems.
• For operation the transponder must either be inserted into the reader or
positioned upon a surface provided for this purpose. Close-coupling systems are
coupled using both electric and magnetic fields and can theoretically be operated
at any desired frequency between DC and 30MHz because the operation of the
transponder does not rely upon the radiation of fields.
• The close coupling between data carrier and reader also facilitates the provision
of greater amounts of power and so even a microprocessor with non optimal
power consumption, for example, can be operated. Close-coupling systems are
primarily used in applications that are subject to strict security requirements, but
do not require a large range.

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• Systems with write and read ranges of up to 1m are known by the
collective term of remote coupling systems. Almost all remote coupled
systems are based upon an inductive (magnetic) coupling between reader
and transponder. These systems are therefore also known as inductive
radio systems.
• In addition there are also a few systems with capacitive (electric) coupling.
At least 90% of all RFID systems currently sold are inductively coupled
systems. For this reason there is now an enormous number of such
systems on the market.
• There is also a series of standards that specify the technical parameters of
transponder and reader for various standard applications, such as
contactless smart cards, animal identification or industrial automation.
These also include proximity coupling (ISO 14443, contactless smart cards)
and vicinity coupling systems (ISO 15693, smart label and contactless
smart cards). Frequencies below 135 kHz or 13.56MHz are used as
transmission frequencies. Some special applications (e.g. Eurobalise) are
also operated at 27.125 MHz.
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• RFID systems with ranges significantly above 1m are known as long-range
systems. All long range systems operate using electromagnetic waves in
the UHF and microwave range.
• The vast majority of such systems are also known as backscatter systems
due to their physical operating principle.
• In addition, there are also long-range systems using surface acoustic wave
transponders in the microwave range. All these systems are operated at
the UHF frequencies of 868MHz (Europe) and 915MHz (USA) and at the
microwave frequencies of 2.5 GHz and 5.8 GHz.
• Typical ranges of 3m can now be achieved using passive (battery-free)
backscatter transponders, while ranges of 15m and above can even be
achieved using active (battery-supported) backscatter transponders. The
battery of an active transponder, however, never provides the power for
data transmission between transponder and reader, but serves exclusively
to supply the microchip and for the retention of stored data. The power of
the electromagnetic field received from the reader is the only power used
for the data transmission between transponder and reader.
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Active and Passive Transponders
An important distinction criterion of different RFID systems is how the energy supply of the
transponder works. Here we distinguish between passive and active transponders.
Passive transponders do not have any power supply. Through the transponder antenna, the magnetic
or electromagnetic field of the reader provides all the energy required for operating the transponder.
In order to transmit data from the transponder to the reader, the field of the reader can be
modulated (e.g. by load modulation or modulated backscatter) or the transponder can intermediately
store, for a short time, energy from the field of the reader. That means that the energy emitted by the
reader is used for data transmission both from the reader to the transponder and back to the reader.
If the transponder is located outside the reader’s range, the transponder has no power supply at all
and, therefore, will not be able to send signals.
Active transponders have their own energy supply, e.g. in form of a battery or a solar cell. Here the
power supply is used to provide voltage to the chip. The magnetic or electromagnetic field received
by the reader is therefore no longer necessary for the power supply of the chip. That means that the
field may be much weaker than the field required for operating a passive transponder. This condition
can substantially increase the communication range if the transponder is capable of detecting the
weaker reader signal.
But even an active RFID transponder is not able to generate a high-frequency signal of its own, but
can only modulate the reader field in order to transmit data between transponder and reader, similar
to the procedure in passive transponders. Thus, the energy from the transponder’s own power supply
does not contribute to data transmission from the transponder to the reader! In the literature, this
type of transponder is often called ‘semi-passive’

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Comparison
between passive
and active
transponders

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 Common applications
• Inventory and asset tracking
• Access control (ID badges, secure entry)
• Supply chain management
• Retail (anti-theft tags)
• Healthcare (patient tracking)

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 Design a hybrid smart parking system using Bluetooth and
RFID
A hybrid smart parking system uses:RFID for vehicle identification and access control (entry/exit).
Bluetooth (BLE) for real-time proximity sensing, user interaction via mobile apps, and slot-level
detection/assignment.

Component Description
RFID Reader Installed at entry and exit gates to identify vehicles.

Passive tags fixed on windshields or embedded in vehicle

RFID Tags
license plates.

Deployed in each parking slot to detect vehicle presence

Bluetooth Beacons (BLE)
and proximity.
Used for slot booking, navigation, and receiving
Mobile App
notifications.
Stores data: vehicle IDs, slot availability, user preferences,
Central Server/Cloud
logs.
At entry/exit barriers and inside the lot for coordinating
Controller Unit
signals.
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How It Works
1. Entry Process
Vehicle arrives at entrance.
RFID Reader scans the RFID tag on the vehicle.
If the vehicle is authorized:
Barrier opens.
System logs time and vehicle ID.
Server assigns or confirms a parking slot.
Slot assignment sent via Bluetooth to the mobile app.
2. Slot Detection and Monitoring
Each parking slot has a BLE beacon .
When a vehicle parks, the driver's smartphone detects the beacon.
The beacon also detects the vehicle’s presence (via RSSI).
This data is sent to the cloud to update slot status in real time.
3. Exit Process
When vehicle moves toward exit:
RFID is scanned again.
Parking duration is calculated.
Payment is processed (via app or automated billing).
Barrier opens if payment is complete.

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 WLAN-Wi-Fi technology: Features, architecture, frequency
band, IEEE 802.11

WLAN provides wireless network access within a limited area such as homes,
offices, or campuses using radio waves.The most prominent specification for
wireless LANs (WLANs) was developed by the IEEE 802.11 working group. Variants
include: 802.11a, b, g, n, ac, ax. Commonly known as Wi-Fi(Wireless Fidelity)
Key Features:
Range: ~100 meters (varies depending on environment and standard).
Speed: From a few Mbps to over 1 Gbps (e.g., Wi-Fi 6).
Frequency Bands: 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz (also 6 GHz in newer Wi-Fi 6E).
Architecture: Uses Access Points (APs) to connect wireless devices to the LAN.

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Protocol Architecture
Protocols defined specifically for LAN and MAN
transmission address issues relating to the
transmission of blocks of data over the network.
In OSI terms, higher-layer protocols (layer 3 or 4 and
above) are independent of network architecture and
are applicable to LANs, MANs, and WANs.
Figure relates the LAN protocols to the OSI
architecture .
This architecture was developed by the IEEE 802
committee and has been adopted by all organizations
working on the specification of LAN standards.
It is generally referred to as the IEEE 802 reference
model

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Working from the bottom up, the lowest layer of the IEEE 802 reference model corresponds to the
physical layer of the OSI model and includes such functions as
• Encoding/decoding of signals (e.g., PSK, QAM, etc.)
• Preamble generation/removal (for synchronization)
• Bit transmission/ reception
In addition, the physical layer of the 802 model includes a specification of the transmission medium
and the topology. Generally, this is considered "below" the lowest layer of the OSI model. However,
the choice of transmission medium and topology is critical in LAN design, and so a specification of
the medium is included. For some of the IEEE 802 standards, the physical layer is further subdivided
into sub layers. In the case of IEEE 802.11, two sub layers are defined:
• Physical layer convergence procedure (PLCP): Defines a method of mapping 802.11 MAC layer
protocol data units (MPDUs) into a framing format suitable for sending and receiving user data and
management information between two or more stations using the associated PMD sub layer
• Physical medium dependent sub layer (PMD): Defines the characteristics of, and method of
transmitting and receiving, user data through a wireless medium between two or more stations

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Above the physical layer are the functions associated with providing service
to LAN users. The functions typically associated with OSI layer 2 is divided in
two parts.These include
Functions of medium access control (MAC) layer:
• On transmission, assemble data into a frame with address and error detection
fields
• On reception, disassemble frame and perform address recognition and error
detection
• Govern access to the LAN transmission medium
Functions of logical link control (LLC) Layer:
• Provide an interface to higher layers and perform flow and error control
The separation is done for the following reasons:
• The logic required to manage access to a shared-access medium is not
found in traditional layer 2 data link control.
• For the same LLC, several MAC options may be provided.
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 The Wi-Fi Alliance
✔ The first 802.11 standard to gain broad industry acceptance was 802.11b.
Although 802.11b products are all based on the same standard, there is always a
concern whether products from different vendors will successfully interoperate.
✔ To meet this concern, the Wireless Ethernet Compatibility Alliance (WECA), an
industry consortium, was formed in 1999. This organization, subsequently
renamed it as Wi-Fi (Wireless Fidelity)
✔ Alliance, created a test suite to certify interoperability for 802.11b products. As
of 2004, products from over 120 vendors have been certified. The term used for
certified 802.11b products is Wi-Fi. Wi-Fi certification has been extended to
802.11b products, and 57 vendors have so far been qualified.
✔ The Wi-Fi Alliance has also developed a certification process for 802.11a
products, called Wi-Fi5 The vendors have qualified for Wi-Fi5 certification. The
Wi-Fi Alliance is concerned with a range of market areas for WLANs, including
enterprise, home, and hot spots.
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 IEEE 802.11 Architecture
covers the physical and data link layers.
Smallest building block for wireless LAN is basic service set
(BSS)-Contains Number of stations With Same MAC
protocol Competing for access to same shared wireless
medium
BSS is made of stationary or mobile wireless stations and an
optional central base station, known as the access point
(AP). Two types:
Infrastructure BSS (with Access Point)
Independent BSS (IBSS) – Ad hoc mode (no AP)
BSS with an AP - connect to backbone distribution system
(DS) through access point (AP). AP functions as bridge
MAC protocol may be distributed or controlled by central
coordination function in AP
BSS generally corresponds to cell
Portal: Connects 802.11 wireless LAN to a wired LAN DS can be switch, wired network, or wireless network
Implemented in devices like bridges or routers IEEE Extended Service Set (ESS):Multiple BSSs connected via a
802.11 provides flexible LAN deployment, supporting Distribution System. Appears as a single logical LAN to
both static and mobile users across single or multiple upper layers (LLC)
cells. Enables roaming: stations can move between BSSs
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 IEEE 802.11 Services Overview
Service Categories:
1. Station vs. Distribution System (DS) Services
• Station Services: Provided by every 802.11 device (e.g., authentication)
• DS Services: Provided across BSSs (e.g., distribution, integration)
2. Functionality-Based Categories:
• Access & Privacy Services (3): Authentication, De-authentication, Privacy
• MSDU Delivery Support Services (6): Distribution, Integration, Association, Re-association, Disassociation, Data delivery
MSDU (MAC Service Data Unit):
Data passed from higher layers to MAC; may be fragmented for transmission.

Distribution Services:
Distribution: Transfers MAC frames across BSSs via the DS
Integration: Connects 802.11 LANs to other 802.x LANs (e.g., wired networks)

Mobility Support & Association:

No Transition: Station remains within one BSS
BSS Transition: Movement between BSSs within the same ESS
ESS Transition: Movement between different ESSs (may disrupt service)

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Association-Related Services:
Association: Initial connection between station and AP
Re association: Transfer of association to a new AP (mobility support)
Disassociation: Termination of an association (voluntary or system-triggered)

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 Challenges in Wireless LANs:

• Easy Access: Any station in range can potentially transmit or receive

• Lack of Inherent Privacy: No physical connection limits data interception
Security Services:
• Authentication: Validates station identity before allowing association
• De authentication: Ends authentication session
• Privacy: Optional encryption ensures confidentiality of data in transit IEEE
802.11 enables functionality and security equivalent to wired LANs, while
also supporting mobility and wireless connectivity.

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 WMAN technology: IEEE 802.16 WMAN and IEEE 802.16a Wimax.

With the increased interest in internet connectivity, broadband at high

frequency range and km range of distance connectivity demand, IEEE
802 standard committee set up 802.16 group in1999 to develop
broadband services.
✔ IEEE 802.16 standardizes the air interface and related functions
associated with LMDS(Local multipoint distributed system).
✔ In addition, an industry group, the WiMAX (Worldwide
Interoperability for Microwave Access) Forum, has been formed to
promote the 802.16 standards and to develop interoperability
specifications.

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 Objectives of IEEE 802.16
• Wireless links using microwave or millimeter wave radios
• Primarily uses licensed spectrum
• Metropolitan-scale network coverage
• Supports fee-paying customers
• Point-to-multipoint architecture (with rooftop or tower antennas)
• Efficient transport of heterogeneous traffic with QoS
• Capable of broadband transmissions (>2 Mbps)

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IEEE 802.16 standards

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 IEEE 802.16 Architecture-system reference and protocol architecture
• The 802.16 standards are designed with respect to the abstract system reference model shown in
Figure
• The 802.16 standard service provides a communications path between a subscriber site, which
may be either a single subscriber device or a network on the subscriber's premises (e.g., a LAN,
PBX, IP-based network) and a core network (the network to which 802.16 is providing access
which can be public telephone or Internet.).
• Three interfaces are defined in this model. IEEE 802.16 standards are concerned with
the air interface between the subscriber's transceiver station and the base transceiver
station.

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IEEE 802.16 protocol architecture
Protocols defined specifically for wireless transmission address issues relating to the transmission
of blocks of data over the network.
In OSI terms, higher-layer protocols (layer 3 or 4 and above) are independent of network
architecture and are applicable to a variety of networks and communications interfaces.
Lowest two layers of the OSI model shown in Figure relates the four protocol layers defined in the
802.16 protocol architecture to the OSI model.
Working from the bottom up, the lowest two layers of the 802.16 protocol model (Physical and
transmission) correspond to the physical layer of the OSI model and include such functions as
• Encoding/decoding of signals
• Preamble generation/removal (for synchronization)
• Bit transmission/reception
In addition, the physical layer of the 802 model includes a specification of the transmission medium and the
frequency band. Generally, this is considered "below" the lowest layer of the OSI model. However, the choice
of transmission medium and frequency band is critical in wireless link design, and so a specification of the
medium is included.

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 IEEE 802.16 protocol architecture

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IEEE 802.16 MAC layer
Above the physical and transmission layers are the functions associated with
providing service to subscribers. These include
✔ On transmission, assemble data into a frame with address and error
detection fields.
✔ On reception, disassemble frame, and perform address recognition and
error detection.
✔ Govern access to the wireless transmission medium.
These functions are grouped into a medium access control (MAC) layer. The
protocol at this layer, between the base station and the subscriber station, is
responsible for sharing access to the radio channel. Specifically, the MAC protocol
defines how and when a base station or subscriber station may initiate
transmission on the channel.
Because some of the layers above the MAC layer, such as ATM, require specified
service levels (QoS), the MAC protocol must be able to allocate radio channel
capacity so as to satisfy service demands.
In the downstream direction (base station to subscriber stations), there is only
one transmitter and the MAC protocol is relatively simple. In the upstream
direction, multiple subscriber stations are competing for access, resulting in a
more
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complex MAC protocol. 37
Convergence Layer
Above the MAC layer is a convergence layer that provides functions specific to the service being
provided. A convergence layer protocol may do the following:
Encapsulate PDU (protocol data unit) framing of upper layers into the native 802.16 MAC/ PHY frames.
Map an upper layer's addresses into 802.16 addresses.
Translate upper layer QoS parameters into native 802.16 MAC format.
Adapt the time dependencies of the upper layer traffic into the equivalent MAC service.
In some cases, such as digital audio and video, no convergence layer is needed and the stream of
digital data is presented to the transmission layer. Upper-layer services that make use of a PDU
structure do require a convergence layer.
• An example of the protocol structure supported by the convergence layer is the handling of TCP/
IP based traffic. Higher-level data are passed down to LLC (logical link control), which appends
control information as a header, creating an LLC protocol data unit (PDU). This control
information is used in the operation of the LLC protocol, which is a form of data link control
protocol (see Appendix C). The entire LLC PDU is then passed down to the MAC layer, which
appends control information at the front and back of the packet, forming a MAC frame. Again,
the control information in the frame is needed for the operation of the MAC protocol.

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 IEEE 802.16 Bearer Services
Definition: Bearer services refer to the types of traffic an 802.16 system must
support from subscriber or core networks.
Supported Bearer Services:
• Digital Audio/Video Multicast: One-way or two-way (e.g., video
conferencing) broadcast with low delay needs.
• Digital Telephony: Multiplexed voice streams; classic Wireless Local Loop
(WLL) service.
• ATM: Supports ATM cells and QoS levels (fixed-length cells).
• Internet Protocol (IP):Transfers IP datagrams with support for IP QoS
services.
• Bridged LAN: Connects LANs with switching at the MAC layer.
• Back-haul: Provides wireless trunks for cellular/wireless base stations.
• Frame Relay: Transfers variable-length frames (unlike ATM).
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 Bearer services are grouped in three broad categories:
• Circuit based: These services provide a circuit-switching capability, in which connections are set up to subscribers
across a core network.
• Variable packet: IP and frame relay are examples of services that make use of variable-length PDUs. Another example
is MPEG video, which is a video compression scheme in which successive blocks of digital video information may be of
varying sizes.
• Fixed-length cell/packet: This service is for ATM.

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 Delay and performance requirements
Three Key Performance Categories :
1. Data Rate: Varies by service type (e.g., Mbps-level for video).
2. Error Performance:
• BER (Bit Error Rate) thresholds
• Specific QoS error parameters for ATM
3. Max One-Way Transit Delay:
Time from Subscriber Network Interface (SNI) to Backbone Network
Interface (BNI).

Defined Delay Types

• Medium Access Delay:
Time before a ready station can transmit.
• Transit Delay:
Includes access delay + MAC processing.
• End-to-End Delay:
Total delay from the subscriber device to the external service beyond the core.

The IEEE 802.16 standard is engineered to meet diverse QoS, error, and delay needs across
various bearer services

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 Physical Layer technologies:
Upstream transmission uses a DAMA-TDMA (demand assignment multiple access-time division multiple access) technique.
DAMA is a capacity assignment technique that adapts as needed to optimally respond to demand changes among the multiple
stations. With DAMA-TDMA, the assignment of slots to channels varies dynamically. Upstream transmission makes use of a
Reed-Solomon code for error correction and a modulation scheme based on QPSK.
In the downstream direction, the standard specifies two modes of operation, one targeted to support a continuous
transmission stream (mode A), such as audio or video, and one targeted to support a burst transmission stream (mode B),
such as IP-based traffic. For the continuous downstream mode, a simple TDM scheme is used for channel access.
The duplexing technique that is used for allocating capacity between upstream and downstream traffic is known as FDD
(frequency division duplex). FDD simply means that a different frequency band is used for transmission in each direction. This
is equivalent to a FAMA-FDMA (fixed assignment multiple access frequency division multiple access) scheme. FDD implies that
all subscribers can transmit and receive simultaneously, each on their own assigned frequencies.
Three alternative techniques are available for duplexing traffic between upstream and downstream:
• FDD with adaptive modulation: This is the same FDD scheme used in the upstream mode, but with a dynamic capability to
change the modulation and forward error correction schemes.
• Frequency shift division duplexing (FSDD): This is similar to FDD, but some or all of the subscribers are not capable of
transmitting and receiving
simultaneously.
• Time division duplexing (TDD): A TDMA frame is used, with part of the time allocated for upstream transmission and part for
downstream transmission.
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IEEE 802.16a – Key Enhancements
Overview:
Ratified in 2003, builds on original IEEE 802.16 (2002)
Operates in the 2–11 GHz band (vs. 10–66 GHz in original)
Non-line-of-sight (NLOS) operation enabled
Range: Up to 50 km
Data Rate: Up to 70+ Mbps

Advantages of 2–11 GHz Band:

✔ Better penetration and coverage in urban/residential areas
✔ Enables lower-cost installations (no need for rooftop LoS)
✔ Suitable for homes and small/medium enterprises

Physical Layer Options:

• Wireless MAN-SCa: Single-carrier modulation
• Wireless MAN-OFDM: 256-point OFDM (TDMA access)
• Wireless MAN-OFDMA: 2048-point OFDMA (multi-user access)

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IEEE 802.16a Technical features
Improved MAC & Physical Layer:
• Enhanced MAC with ARQ (Automatic Repeat Request)
• Support for advanced antenna systems
• Optional mesh topology in addition to point-to-multipoint

Operational Flexibility:
• Supports both TDD (Time Division Duplex) and FDD (Frequency Division Duplex)
• Compatible with varied channel bandwidths

Designed For:
• NLOS environments (e.g., residential areas with obstructions)
• Multipath propagation handling (due to terrain, trees, buildings)
• Cost-efficient broadband wireless access

IEEE 802.16a significantly expands WiMAX usability by combining broad coverage, lower frequency
flexibility, and support for diverse user needs.

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 LoRaWAN: Features, architecture, frequency band
applications.
• LoRa (Long Range) – a modulation technique based on Chirp Spread Spectrum.
• LoRaWAN (LoRa Wide Area Network – a communication protocol and system architecture.)
• Purpose: Designed for low-power, wide-area IoT applications. Operates in unlicensed ISM bands
(e.g., 868 MHz, 915 MHz)
Key Features:
• Long-range (up to 15–20 km in rural areas) communication
• Low power consumption (battery life up to 10 years)
• Low data rate (suitable for sensors and small data packets)
• Secure end-to-end communication (AES-128 encryption)
• Cost-effective deployment

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LoRa Chirp Spread Spectrum
A Spread Spectrum method that is different from the one based on PN sequence. However, the purpose is the same:
being able to transmit at the same time, on the same channel.
LoRa transceiver can use eight "spreading codes" called "Spreading Factor" [SF5, SF6, SF7, SF8, SF9, SF10, SF11
and SF12]. We can therefore have eight simultaneous transmissions on the same channel.
Frequency Chirps: Data encoded via changing frequencies.
Wide Bandwidth: Resists interference.
Long-Range: Reliable communication over distance.
The signal emitted by the LoRa modulation is a symbol with a basic form presented in Figure. Its name "Chirp" comes
from the fact that this symbol is used in radar technology (Chirp: Compressed High Intensity Radar Pulse).
Note:
• The higher the Spreading Factor, the lower the bit rate.
• The higher the bandwidth, the higher the bit rate.

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 LoRa Alliance &LoRaWAN standard
The is a non-profit organization founded in 2015 that aims to develop LoRaWAN
technology and the LoRaWAN ecosystem.
Its members are global companies that are heavily invested in the LoRa Alliance’s
growth.
Any organization can apply to become a member of the LoRa Alliance and
participate in the LoRaWAN development.Different LoRa protocol versions have
come up-V1.0.0,V1.0.1, V1.0.2, V2.0, V2.0.1,V2.0.3, V2.0.4(in 2020)
LoRaWAN is an extension of the LoRa protocol that gives the capabilities to securely
connect the device to a server in order to provide data to the end user.
• LoRa physical layer: Type of modulation (Chirp Spread Spectrum) and the physical
frame format used to send data between a transmitter and a receiver.
• LoRaWAN standard: Network architecture (end-device, gateways, servers) and a
more specific frame format allowing a LoRaWAN end-device to securely transmit
data to a LoRaWAN server.

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Structure of a LoRaWAN network
Figure shows the entire LoRaWAN architecture. On the left side, there is the LoRaWAN end device
that transmits data. The user is on the other side and receives the transmitted data through the
network.
The LoRaWAN end-devices, gateways, Network Server and Application Server are at the heart of the
LoRaWAN architecture, but the IoT platform and the user connection have nothing to do with it. It’s
just a classic web service.

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LoRaWAN main Characteristics
▪ Device can send up to 250 Bytes / packet
▪ (max value depends on the selected DataRate)
▪ Fixed DataRate or adaptive DataRate
▪ Interesting for moving devices
▪ Confirmed or Unconfirmed messages
▪ Port communication (1 to 223)
▪ Uplink and Downlink communications
▪ Security with AES 128 encryption
▪ Each end devices should have a unique ID (EUI64)
▪ 2 modes for end device activation
▪ OTAA (Over-The-Air Activation)
▪ ABP (Activation By Personalization)
▪ 32 bits End-device address
▪ Several security keys (AES-128)
▪ Application Key (128 bits)
▪ Network Session Key (128 bits)
▪ Application Session Key (128 bits)
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Advantages and Applications
Advantages Applications

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