IBBU-BCH 102

INTRODUCTION TO FUNDAMENTALS OF BIOCHEMISTRY

PROF. A. KABIRU
DEPARTMENT OF BIOCHEMISTRY
FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY, MINNA
[email protected]
Chemical Composition of Living Matter
• The chemical composition of living matter is dominated by a few key elements
and a wide array of complex molecules.
• Water (H₂O) is the most prevalent substance. It is the most abundant compound in
living organisms, making up about 70-90% of most cells. It is crucial for many
biochemical reactions, acting as a solvent, a reactant, and a temperature buffer.
• Carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids make up the primary classes of
biomolecules,
• while minerals, trace elements, and vitamins are crucial for various cellular
functions.
• Carbohydrates are made up of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. They serve as
energy sources and structural components. e.g. Glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆), cellulose,
starch.
• Proteins are composed of amino acids, which contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,
nitrogen, and sometimes sulfur.
Chemical Composition of Living Matter
• Proteins function as enzymes, structural proteins, signaling molecules, and more.
e.g. Hemoglobin in the blood, enzymes like amylase and trypsin.
• Lipids are made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, and sometimes phosphorus.
They are for energy storage, membrane structure, and signaling. e.g Fats,
phospholipids, steroids.
• Nucleic acids are composed of nucleotides, which contain carbon, hydrogen,
oxygen, nitrogen, and phosphorus. They store and transmit genetic information
e.g. DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), RNA (ribonucleic acid).
• Minerals and Trace Elements are required in smaller amounts but are essential for
various biological functions, including enzyme activity, bone formation, and
maintaining osmotic balance. Examples include: Calcium (Ca), Potassium (K),
Sodium (Na), Magnesium (Mg), Iron (Fe) & Zinc (Zn).
• Vitamins are organic compounds required in small quantities for proper metabolic
functioning. They act as coenzymes or precursors for enzyme cofactors. Examples
include: Vitamin C (ascorbic acid), Vitamin D, Vitamin B-complex (B1, B2, B3).
Nutrition, Blood and Genes
• Nutrition is the process by which living organisms obtain and utilize the nutrients
necessary for growth, maintenance, and overall health.
• Adequate nutrition involves the intake of macronutrients and micronutrients from
a balanced diet
• Macronutrients are nutrients required in large quantity: Carbohydrates, proteins &
fats/lipids.
• Micronutrients are nutrients required in smaller quantities: Vitamins and Minerals
elements
• Adequate nutrition is achieved when a balanced diet that includes a variety of food
components (macro-micro-nutrients) in the right proportions are provided for
body. The body then attains a good health status.
• Lack of balanced may lead to malnutrition or undernutrition, and consequently
leading to disease.
Nutrition, Blood and Genes
• Blood is a vital fluid in the human body that performs numerous essential functions
viz transport (Oxygen, nutrients, waste products, hormones); regulation (acid-base
balance, fluid,tempeature) and protection (immune system & bood clotting).
• It is composed of various cells and plasma, each serving specific roles in
maintaining homeostasis, transporting nutrients and gases, and protecting the body.
• Blood consists of two main components: plasma (Neutrophils, Lymphocytes,
Monocytes, Eosinophils) and blood cells (Red blood cells, white blood cells &
platelets).
• Genes are fundamental units of heredity that contain the instructions for the
development, functioning, growth, and reproduction of all living organisms. They
are made up of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and are located on chromosomes
within the cell nucleus.
• Genes carry instructions for protein synthesis and regulation of cellular processes.
Genes
• Each molecule of DNA is a double helix formed from two complementary strands
of nucleotides held together by hydrogen bonds between G-C and A-T base pairs.
• Each strand is composed of nucleotides, which include a sugar molecule
(deoxyribose), a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base.
• Duplication of the genetic information occurs by the use of one DNA strand as a
template for formation of a complementary strand.
• There are four types of Nitrogenous bases: adenine (A), thymine (T), cytosine
(C), and guanine (G). A pairs with T, and C pairs with G.
Cellular Design and Transport
• Cellular design refers to the structural and functional organization of the cell; the
basic unit of life
• There are two primary types of cells: prokaryotic and eukaryotic
• Prokaryotic Cells: Typically smaller than eukaryotic cells (1-10 micrometers),
lack nucleus and membrane-bound organelles. e.g. bacteria and archaea.
• The structure has the following:
• Cell Wall: Provides structural support and protection; composed of peptidoglycan
in bacteria.
• Plasma Membrane: Controls the movement of substances in and out of the cell.
• Cytoplasm: Gel-like substance where metabolic activities occur.
Cellular Design and Transport
• Ribosomes: Sites of protein synthesis; smaller than eukaryotic
ribosomes.
• Nucleoid: Region containing the cell’s DNA.
• Plasmids: Small, circular DNA molecules separate from the
chromosomal DNA; often carry antibiotic resistance genes.
• Flagella: Tail-like structures used for movement.
• Pili: Hair-like structures used for attachment and conjugation.
Cellular Design and Transport
• Eukaryotic Cells: larger structure (larger than prokaryotic cells (10-100
micrometers), contain nucleus and membrane-bound organelles e.g. protists,
fungi, plants, and animals.
• Eukaryotic cells have more complex internal structures, including various
organelles, each with specific functions. These include:
• Nucleus, Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER), Mitochondria, Chloroplasts (in plant
cells), Cytoskeleton, Plasma Membrane, Cell Wall (in plant, fungal, and some
protist cells).
• Each cellular component plays a crucial role in the cell’s survival, growth, and
function, contributing to the overall complexity and adaptability of living
organisms.
• Assignment: List two (2) functions of each of the cellular structures in
prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
Cellular Export and Import of Molecules
• Cellular transport refers to the movement of substances across the cell membrane
and within the cell.
• This process is essential for maintaining cellular homeostasis, nutrient uptake,
waste removal, and intercellular communication.
• Cellular transport mechanisms can be broadly categorized into passive and active
transport.
• Passive Transport: movement of substances across the cell membrane based on
the concentration gradient of substances. It dose not require ATP energy for
transport. The two basic passive processes are: Diffusion and Osmosis
• Simple Diffusion: Movement of small, nonpolar molecules (e.g., oxygen, carbon
dioxide) directly across the lipid bilayer from an area of higher concentration to an
area of lower concentration.
• Facilitated Diffusion: Movement of larger or polar molecules (e.g., glucose, ions)
across the cell membrane via specific transport proteins.
Cellular Export and Import of Molecules
• Osmosis: The movement (diffusion) of water molecules across a selectively
permeable membrane from an area of lower solute concentration to an area of
higher solute concentration.
• Active Transport: transport of molecules or substances that requires energy, in
the form of ATP, usually against their concentration gradient.
• Primary Active Transport: involves direct use of ATP to transport molecules.
e.g. (Na+/K+ pump) which pumps three sodium ions out of the cell and two
potassium ions into the cell against their concentration gradients.
• Secondary Active Transport (Cotransport): involves using the energy from the
electrochemical gradient created by primary active transport to move other
substances. There are 2 types:
• Symport: Both substances move in the same direction (e.g., sodium-glucose co-transporter).
• Antiport: Substances move in opposite directions (e.g., sodium-calcium exchanger).
Separation Techniques in Biochemistry
• Separation techniques in biochemistry are methods for isolating, identifying, and
characterizing biomolecules such as proteins, nucleic acids, lipids, and other
metabolites.
• These techniques exploit differences in physical and chemical properties of the
molecules to achieve separation. Some of these techniques include:
• Chromatography: used to separate mixtures based on differences in their
movement through a stationary phase under the influence of a mobile phase.
• Electrophoresis: used to separate molecules based on their charge and size by
applying an electric field.
• Centrifugation: used to separate components based on their density by spinning
them at high speeds in a centrifuge.
• Affinity Techniques: used to separate molecules based on specific interactions
between a molecule of interest and a ligand.
Separation Techniques in Biochemistry
• Precipitation Techniques: used to separate biomolecules by altering solubility
conditions, such that the molecule of interest solubilises at a particular condition,
e.g. Salting Out: Proteins are precipitated by increasing the concentration of salts
(e.g., ammonium sulfate), used for crude protein fractionation and purification.
• These techniques enable the purification, identification, and characterization of
biomolecules, contributing to advances in research and biotechnology.
Introduction To Biomolecules
• Biomolecules are an organic molecule that includes carbohydrates, protein, lipids,
and nucleic acids.
• They are important for the survival of living cells.
• Carbohydrates are chemically defined as polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones; the
most abundant dietary source of energy. Classified into monosaccharides (1unit),
oligosaccharides (2-10), and polsaccharides (above 10)
• Proteins are polymers of amino acids arranged in the form of polypeptide chains.
Proteins play both structural and dynamic roles.
• Lipids are organic substances that are insoluble in water, soluble in organic
solvents; made up of fatty acids. They play a great role in the cellular structure
and are the chief source of energy.
• Nucleic acids refer to the genetic material found in the cell that carries all the
hereditary information from parents to progeny. Two types of nucleic acids
namely, deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA).
Reactions and Energy Changes
• Reactions and energy changes are fundamental concepts in biochemistry,
influencing how biological molecules interact and how metabolic pathways
function
• There are basically six (6) types of biochemical reactions based on the types of
enzymes that catalyse them. These include:
• Oxidation-Reduction: catalysed by oxidoreductases, involves loss of electrons by
a molecule, atom, or ion and gain of electrons by a molecule, atom, or ion.
• Gruop Transfer Reaction: catalysed by transferases, a functional group from one
molecule is transferred to another.
• Hydrolysis Reactions: Breaking of a chemical bond by the addition of water,
catalysed by hydrolases
• Condensation (Dehydration Synthesis) Reactions: Formation of a chemical
bond by the removal of a water molecule, e.g. Formation of a peptide bond
between two amino acids, water is formed.
Reactions and Energy Changes
• Isomerization Reactions: Rearrangement of atoms within a molecule to form
isomers, catalysed by isomerases.
• Ligation Reactions: Joining two molecules together at the expense of ATP
energy, catalysed ligases.
• Gibbs Free Energy (ΔG): The amount of energy available to do work in a
biochemical reaction.
• Thermodynamic equation: ΔG = ΔH - TΔS, governs all biochemical energy
changes
• ΔH: Change in enthalpy (heat content).
• T: Temperature in Kelvin. ΔG < 0: Exergonic reaction (releases
• ΔS: Change in entropy (disorder). energy, spontaneous).
ΔG > 0: Endergonic reaction (requires
energy, non-spontaneous).
ΔG = 0: Reaction is at equilibrium
Importance of Water and Buffers
• Water and buffers are crucial to maintaining the stability and functionality of
biological systems.
• Water is a univesal solvent: Water's polarity allows it to dissolve a wide range of
substances, including salts, sugars, acids, and gases, thus making it an ideal
medium for biochemical reactions and cellular processes.
• Temperature Regulator: Water can absorb and release large amounts of heat
with minimal temperature change, helping to stabilize temperatures in organisms
and environments, because its high heat capacity.
• Role in Chemical Reactions (Hydrolysis and Condensation): Water
participates in hydrolysis reactions (breaking down molecules with water) and
condensation reactions (forming bonds with the release of water), which are
fundamental to metabolic processes.
Importance of Water and Buffers
• Structural Support: In plant cells, water pressure within the central vacuole
helps maintain cell shape and rigidity; water also acts as a lubricant in various
bodily fluids like synovial fluid in joints and cerebrospinal fluid around the brain
and spinal cord.
• Transport: Water facilitates the transport of nutrients, gases, and waste products
within cells and between cells and their environment.
• Buffer Systems: Buffers consist of weak acids and their conjugate bases or weak
bases and their conjugate acids.
• They function by neutralising added acids or bases, thus preventing drastic pH
changes in the system.
• Every enzyme involved in biochemical reactions has an optimal pH of activity,
that is the pH of maximum activity. Buffers in the system help to maintain pH.
• Buffers play a critical role in maintaining pH balance, ensuring proper enzyme
activity, and stabilizing solutions in both biological and experimental contexts.
Career Prospects in Biochemistry and Relationship to Other
Disciplines
• Biochemist: Scientists who are trained in biochemistry.
• Biomedical Scientist: work in medical laboratories, where they analyze samples
from patients to diagnose diseases and monitor treatment of diseases.
• Biomedical Engineer: a Biochemical engineer isresponsible for developing and
optimizing processes for the production of biochemicals, such as pharmaceuticals,
enzymes.
• Forensic scientist: use scientific techniques to investigate crimes and provide
evidence in court. They analyze samples from crime scenes.
• Pharmacologist: study how drugs can affect the living system.
• Medical laboratory scientist: performs diagnostic testing of blood and body fluids
in clinical laboratories.
• Environmental Biochemist: study the natural environment and the impact of
human activity on it.
Career Prospects in Biochemistry and Relationship to Other
Disciplines
• Nutritionist/Dietician: study the implications of nutritional status in health and
disease.
• Other carreers are in the fields of nanotechnology, Bioinformatics, Toxicolgy,
Biotechnology
• Biochemistry combines Biology and Chemistry to study living matter. It powers
scientific and medical discovery in fields such as pharmaceuticals, forensics and
nutrition.
• Biochemistry provides the basis for practical advances in medicine, veterinary
medicine, agriculture, and biotechnology.
• It underlies and includes such exciting new fields as molecular genetics and
bioengineering.