1

2
Introduction
to C Programming
 2

OBJECTIVES
In this chapter you will learn:
 To write simple computer programs in C.
 To use simple input and output statements.
 The fundamental data types.
 Computer memory concepts.
 To use arithmetic operators.
 The precedence of arithmetic operators.
 To write simple decision-making statements.
 3

2.1 Introduction
2.2 A Simple C Program: Printing a Line of Text
2.3 Another Simple C Program: Adding Two Integers
2.4 Memory Concepts
2.5 Arithmetic in C
2.6 Decision Making: Equality and Relational Operators
 4

2.1 Introduction
 C programming language
– Structured and disciplined approach to program design
 Structured programming
– Introduced in chapters 3 and 4
– Used throughout the remainder of the book
 5

IDE for C Language

 6

IDE for C Language

1 /* Fig. 2.1: fig02_01.c 7
A first program in C */
2
3 #include <stdio.h>
/* and */ indicate comments – ignored by compiler Outline
4
5 /* function main begins program execution */ #include directive tells C to load a particular file
6 int main( void )
7 {
Left brace declares beginning of main function
8 printf( "Welcome to C!\n" );
9 Statement tells C to perform an action
10 return 0; /* indicate that program ended successfully */
11
return statement ends the function
12 } /* end function main */
Right brace declares end of main function
Welcome to C!
 8

2.2 A Simple C Program:

Printing a Line of Text
Comments
– Text surrounded by /* and */ is ignored by computer
– Used to describe program
 #include <stdio.h>
– Preprocessor directive
- Tells computer to load contents of a certain file
– <stdio.h> allows standard input/output operations
 9

Common Programming Error 2.1

Forgetting to terminate a comment with */.

 10

Common Programming Error 2.2

Starting a comment with the characters */

or ending a comment with the characters /*.
 11

2.2 A Simple C Program:

Printing a Line of Text
 int main()
– C++ programs contain one or more functions, exactly one
of which must be main
– Parenthesis used to indicate a function
– int means that main "returns" an integer value
– Braces ({ and }) indicate a block
- The bodies of all functions must be contained in braces
 12

Good Programming Practice 2.1

Every function should be preceded by a

comment describing the purpose of the
function.
 13

2.2 A Simple C Program:

Printing a Line of Text
 printf( "Welcome to C!\n" );
– Instructs computer to perform an action
- Specifically, prints the string of characters within quotes ( "
")
– Entire line called a statement
- All statements must end with a semicolon (;)
– Escape character (\)
- Indicates that printf should do something out of the ordinary
- \n is the newline character
 14

Escape sequence Description

\n Newline. Position the cursor at the beginning of the next line.

\t Horizontal tab. Move the cursor to the next tab stop.
\a Alert. Sound the system bell.
\\ Backslash. Insert a backslash character in a string.
\" Double quote. Insert a double-quote character in a string.

Fig. 2.2 | Some common escape sequences.

 15

Common Programming Error 2.3

Typing the name of the output function

printf as print in a program.
 16

2.2 A Simple C Program:

Printing a Line of Text
 return 0;
– A way to exit a function
– return 0, in this case, means that the program terminated
normally
 Right brace }
– Indicates end of main has been reached
 Linker
– When a function is called, linker locates it in the library
– Inserts it into object program
– If function name is misspelled, the linker will produce an error
because it will not be able to find function in the library
 17

Good Programming Practice 2.2

Add a comment to the line containing the

right brace, }, that closes every function,
including main.
 18

Good Programming Practice 2.3

The last character printed by a function that

displays output should be a newline (\n).
This ensures that the function will leave the
screen cursor positioned at the beginning of a
new line. Conventions of this nature
encourage software reusability—a key goal in
software development environments.
 19

Good Programming Practice 2.4

Indent the entire body of each function one

level of indentation (we recommend three
spaces) within the braces that define the
body of the function. This indentation
emphasizes the functional structure of
programs and helps make programs easier
to read.
 20

Good Programming Practice 2.5

Set a convention for the size of indent you

prefer and then uniformly apply that
convention. The tab key may be used to create
indents, but tab stops may vary. We
recommend using three spaces per level of
indent.
1 /* Fig. 2.3: fig02_03.c 21
Printing on one line with two printf statements */
2
3 #include <stdio.h>
Outline
4
5 /* function main begins program execution */
6 int main( void )
fig02_03.c
7 { printf statement starts printing from where
8 printf( "Welcome " );
the last statement ended, so the text is printed
9 printf( "to C!\n" );
10
on one line.
11 return 0; /* indicate that program ended successfully */
12
13 } /* end function main */

Welcome to C!
1 /* Fig. 2.4: fig02_04.c 22
Printing multiple lines with a single printf */
2
3 #include <stdio.h>
Outline
4
5 /* function main begins program execution */
6 int main( void ) Newline characters move the cursor to the next line fig02_04.c
7 {
8 printf( "Welcome\nto\nC!\n" );
9
10 return 0; /* indicate that program ended successfully */
11
12 } /* end function main */

Welcome
to
C!
1 /* Fig. 2.5: fig02_05.c 23
2
3
Addition program */
#include <stdio.h>
Outline
4
5 /* function main begins program execution */
6 int main( void )
fig02_05.c
7 {
8 int integer1; /* first number to be input by user */
9 int integer2; /* second number to be input by user */ Definitions of variables
10 int sum; /* variable in which sum will be stored */
11
12 printf( "Enter first integer\n" ); /* prompt */ scanf obtains a value from the user
13 scanf( "%d", &integer1 ); /* read an integer */ and assigns it to integer1
14
15 printf( "Enter second integer\n" ); /* prompt */
16 scanf( "%d", &integer2 ); /* read an integer */ scanf obtains a value from the user
17 and assigns it to integer2
18 sum = integer1 + integer2; /* assign total to sum */
19
20
Assigns a value to sum
printf( "Sum is %d\n", sum ); /* print sum */
21
22 return 0; /* indicate that program ended successfully */
23
24 } /* end function main */

Enter first integer

45
Enter second integer
72
Sum is 117
 24

2.3 Another Simple C Program:

Adding Two Integers
 As before
– Comments, #include <stdio.h> and main
 int integer1, integer2, sum;
– Definition of variables
- Variables: locations in memory where a value can be stored
– int means the variables can hold integers ( -1, 3, 0, 47)
– Variable names (identifiers)
- integer1, integer2, sum
- Identifiers: consist of letters, digits (cannot begin with a digit) and
underscores( _ )
Case sensitive
– Definitions appear before executable statements
- If an executable statement references and undeclared variable it will
produce a syntax (compiler) error
 25

Common Programming Error 2.4

Using a capital letter where a lowercase letter

should be used (for example, typing Main
instead of main).
 26

Portability Tip 2.1

Use identifiers of 31 or fewer characters.

This helps ensure portability and can avoid
some subtle programming errors.
 27

Good Programming Practice 2.6

Choosing meaningful variable names

helps make a program self-documenting,
i.e., fewer comments are needed.
 28

Good Programming Practice 2.7

The first letter of an identifier used as a

simple variable name should be a lowercase
letter. Later in the text we will assign special
significance to identifiers that begin with a
capital letter and to identifiers that use all
capital letters.
 29

Good Programming Practice 2.8

Multiple-word variable names can help make a

program more readable. Avoid run­ning the separate
words together as in totalcommissions. Rather,
separate the words with underscores as in
total_commissions, or, if you do wish to run the
words together, begin each word after the first with a
capital letter as in totalCommissions. The latter
style is preferred.
 30

Common Programming Error 2.5

Placing variable definitions among

executable statements causes syntax errors.
 31

Good Programming Practice 2.9

Separate the definitions and executable

statements in a function with one blank line
to emphasize where the definitions end and
the executable statements begin.
 32

2.3 Another Simple C Program:

Adding Two Integers
 scanf( "%d", &integer1 );
– Obtains a value from the user
- scanf uses standard input (usually keyboard)
– This scanf statement has two arguments
- %d - indicates data should be a decimal integer
- &integer1 - location in memory to store variable
- & is confusing in beginning – for now, just remember to
include it with the variable name in scanf statements
– When executing the program the user responds to the
scanf statement by typing in a number, then pressing the
enter (return) key
 33

Good Programming Practice 2.10

Place a space after each comma (,) to

make programs more readable.
 34

2.3 Another Simple C Program:

Adding Two Integers
 = (assignment operator)
– Assigns a value to a variable
– Is a binary operator (has two operands)
sum = variable1 + variable2;
sum gets variable1 + variable2;
– Variable receiving value on left
 printf( "Sum is %d\n", sum );
– Similar to scanf
- %d means decimal integer will be printed
- sum specifies what integer will be printed
– Calculations can be performed inside printf statements
printf( "Sum is %d\n", integer1 + integer2 );
 35

Good Programming Practice 2.11

Place spaces on either side of a binary

operator. This makes the operator stand
out and makes the program more readable.
 36

Common Programming Error 2.6

A calculation in an assignment statement

must be on the right side of the = operator.
It is a syntax error to place a calculation on
the left side of an assignment operator.
 37

Common Programming Error 2.7

Forgetting one or both of the double quotes

surrounding the format control string in a
printf or scanf.
 38

Common Programming Error 2.8

Forgetting the % in a conversion specification in

the format control string of a printf or scanf.
 39

Common Programming Error 2.9

Placing an escape sequence such as \n outside

the format control string of a printf or
scanf.
 40

Common Programming Error 2.10

Forgetting to include the expressions

whose values are to be printed in a
printf containing conversion specifiers.
 41

Common Programming Error 2.11

Not providing a conversion specifier when

one is needed in a printf format control
string to print the value of an expression.
 42

Common Programming Error 2.12

Placing inside the format control string the

comma that is supposed to separate the
format control string from the expressions
to be printed.
 43

Common Programming Error 2.13

Forgetting to precede a variable in a scanf

statement with an ampersand when that
variable should, in fact, be preceded by an
ampersand.
 44

Common Programming Error 2.14

Preceding a variable included in a printf

statement with an ampersand when, in fact,
that variable should not be preceded by an
ampersand.
 45

2.4 Memory Concepts

 Variables
– Variable names correspond to locations in the computer's
memory
– Every variable has a name, a type, a size and a value
– Whenever a new value is placed into a variable (through
scanf, for example), it replaces (and destroys) the previous
value
– Reading variables from memory does not change them
 46

Fig. 2.6 | Memory location showing the name and value of a variable.
 47

Fig. 2.7 | Memory locations after both variables are input.

 48

Fig. 2.8 | Memory locations after a calculation.

 49

2.5 Arithmetic
 Arithmetic calculations
– Use * for multiplication and / for division
– Integer division truncates remainder
- 7 / 5 evaluates to 1
– Modulus operator(%) returns the remainder
- 7 % 5 evaluates to 2
 Operator precedence
– Some arithmetic operators act before others (i.e., multiplication
before addition)
- Use parenthesis when needed
– Example: Find the average of three variables a, b and c
- Do not use: a + b + c / 3
- Use: (a + b + c ) / 3
 50

Arithmetic Algebraic
C opetration C expression
operator expression

Addition + f+7 f + 7
Subtraction – p–c p - c
Multiplication * bm b * m

Division / x
x y or or x÷y x / y
y

Remainder % r mod s r % s

Fig. 2.9 | Arithmetic operators.

 51

Common Programming Error 2.15

An attempt to divide by zero is normally

undefined on computer systems and generally
results in a fatal error, i.e., an error that causes
the program to terminate immediately without
having successfully performed its job. Nonfatal
errors allow programs to run to completion,
often producing incorrect results.
 52

Operator(s) Operation(s) Order of evaluation (precedence)

( ) Parentheses Evaluated first. If the parentheses are
nested, the expression in the innermost pair is
evaluated first. If there are several pairs of
parentheses “on the same level” (i.e., not nested),
they are evaluated left to right.
* Multiplication Evaluated second. If there are several, they are
/ Division evaluated left to right.
% Remainder
+ Addition Evaluated last. If there are several, they are
- Subtraction evaluated left to right.

Fig. 2.10 | Precedence of arithmetic operators.

 53

Fig. 2.11 | Order in which a second-degree polynomial is evaluated.

 54

Good Programming Practice 2.12

Using redundant parentheses in complex

arithmetic expressions can make the
expressions clearer.
 55

2.6 Decision Making: Equality and

Relational Operators
 Executable statements
– Perform actions (calculations, input/output of data)
– Perform decisions
- May want to print "pass" or "fail" given the value of a test grade
 if control statement
– Simple version in this section, more detail later
– If a condition is true, then the body of the if statement
executed
- 0 is false, non-zero is true
– Control always resumes after the if structure
 Keywords
– Special words reserved for C
– Cannot be used as identifiers or variable names
 56

Standard algebraic C equality or

Example of
equality operator or relational Meaning of C condition
C condition
relational operator operator

Equality operators
 == x == y x is equal to y

 != x != y x is not equal to y

Relational operators

 > x > y x is greater than y

 < x < y x is less than y

≥ >= x >= y x is greater than or equal to y

≤ <= x <= y x is less than or equal to y

Fig. 2.12 | Equality and relational operators.

 57

Common Programming Error 2.16

A syntax error will occur if the two symbols

in any of the operators ==, !=, >= and <=
are separated by spaces.
 58

Common Programming Error 2.17

A syntax error will occur if the two symbols

in any of the operators !=, >= and <= are
reversed as in =!, => and =<, respectively.
 59

Common Programming Error 2.18

Confusing the equality operator == with

the assignment operator =.
 60

Common Programming Error 2.19

Placing a semicolon immediately to the right

of the right parenthesis after the condition in
an if statement.
 61

Good Programming Practice 2.13

Indent the statement(s) in the body of an

if statement.
 62

Good Programming Practice 2.14

Place a blank line before and after every

if statement in a program for readability.
 63

Good Programming Practice 2.15

Although it is allowed, there should be no

more than one statement per line in a program.
 64

Common Programming Error 2.20

Placing commas (when none are needed)

between conversion specifiers in the format
control string of a scanf statement.
1 /* Fig. 2.13: fig02_13.c 65
Using if statements, relational
2
3 operators, and equality operators */
Outline
4 #include <stdio.h>
5
6 /* function main begins program execution */
fig02_13.c
7 int main( void )
8 {
9 int num1; /* first number to be read from user */
(1 of 3 )
10 int num2; /* second number to be read from user */
11
12 printf( "Enter two integers, and I will tell you\n" );
13 printf( "the relationships they satisfy: " );
14
15 scanf( "%d%d", &num1, &num2 ); /* read two integers */
16
17 if ( num1 == num2 ) { Checks if num1 is equal to num2
18 printf( "%d is equal to %d\n", num1, num2 );
19 } /* end if */
20
21 if ( num1 != num2 ) { Checks if num1 is not equal to num2
22 printf( "%d is not equal to %d\n", num1, num2 );
23 } /* end if */
24
25 if ( num1 < num2 ) { Checks if num1 is less than num2
26 printf( "%d is less than %d\n", num1, num2 );
27 } /* end if */
28
29 if ( num1 > num2 ) { 66
printf( "%d is greater than %d\n", num1, num2 );
30
31 } /* end if */
Outline
Checks if num1 is greater than num2
32
33 if ( num1 <= num2 ) { Checks if num1 is less than or equal to num2
34 printf( "%d is less than or equal to %d\n", num1, num2 );
fig02_13.c
35 } /* end if */
36
37 if ( num1 >= num2 ) { Checks if num1 is greater than equal to num2 (2 of 3 )
38 printf( "%d is greater than or equal to %d\n", num1, num2 );
39 } /* end if */
40
41 return 0; /* indicate that program ended successfully */
42
43 } /* end function main */
43 } /* end function main */

Enter two integers, and I will tell you

the relationships they satisfy: 3 7
3 is not equal to 7
3 is less than 7
3 is less than or equal to 7

(continued on next slide… )

 (continued from previous slide…) 67
Enter two integers, and I will tell you Outline
the relationships they satisfy:
22 is not equal to 12
22 is greater than 12
22 is greater than or equal to 12
fig02_13.c

Enter two integers, and I will tell you (3 of 3 )

the relationships they satisfy:
7 is equal to 7
7 is less than or equal to 7
7 is greater than or equal to 7
 68

Good Programming Practice 2.16

A lengthy statement may be spread over

several lines. If a statement must be split across
lines, choose breaking points that make sense
(such as after a comma in a comma-separated
list). If a statement is split across two or more
lines, indent all subsequent lines.
 69

Good Programming Practice 2.17

Refer to the operator precedence chart when writing

expressions containing many operators. Confirm that
the operators in the expression are applied in the proper
order. If you are uncertain about the order of evaluation
in a complex expression, use parentheses to group
expressions or break the statement into several simpler
statements. Be sure to observe that some of C’s
operators such as the assignment operator (=) associate
from right to left rather than from left to right.
 70

Operators Associativity
() left to right
* / % left to right
+ - left to right
< <= > >= left to right
== != left to right
= right to left

Fig. 2.14 | Precedence and associativity of the operators discussed so far.

 71

Keywords
auto double int struct
break else long switch
case enum register typedef
char extern return union
const float short unsigned
continue for signed void
default goto sizeof volatile
do if static while

Fig. 2.15 | C’s keywords.