3

Differentiation

 Basic Rules of Differentiation

 The Product and Quotient Rules
 The Chain Rule
 Higher Order Derivatives
3.1
Basic Rules of Differentiation

1. Derivative of a Constant
2. The Power Rule
3. Derivative of a Constant Multiple Function
4. The Sum Rule
 Four Basic Rules
 We’ve learned that to find the rule for the derivative f ′of a
function f, we first find the difference quotient

f ( x  h)  f ( x)
lim
h 0 h
 But this method is tedious and time consuming, even for
relatively simple functions.
 This chapter we will develop rules that will simplify the
process of finding the derivative of a function.
 Rule 1: Derivative of a Constant

d
 We will use the notation  f ( x )
dx
 To mean “the derivative of f with respect to x at x.”

Rule 1: Derivative of a constant

d
c  0
dx

 The derivative of a constant function is equal to zero.

 Rule 1: Derivative of a Constant
 We can see geometrically why the derivative of a constant
must be zero.
 The graph of a constant function is a straight line parallel
to the x axis.
 Such a line has a slope that is constant with a value of zero.
 Thus, the derivative of a constant must be zero as well.

f(x) = c

x
 Rule 1: Derivative of a Constant
 We can use the definition of the derivative to
demonstrate this:

f ( x  h)  f ( x)
f ( x ) lim
h 0 h
c c
lim
h 0 h

lim 0
h 0
0
 Rule 2: The Power Rule

Rule 2: The Power Rule

 If n is any real number, then

d n
dx
 x  nx n 1
 Rule 2: The Power Rule
 Lets verify this rule for the special case of n = 2.
 If f(x) = x2, then

d 2 f ( x  h)  f ( x)
f ( x ) 
dx
 x  lim
h 0 h

( x  h)2  x 2 x 2  2 xh  h 2  x 2
lim lim
h 0 h h 0 h

2 xh  h 2 h (2 x  h )
lim lim
h 0 h h 0 h

lim(2 x  h ) 2 x
h 0
 Rule 2: The Power Rule

Practice Examples:
d
 If f(x) = x, then f ( x )   x  1 x1 1  x 0 1
dx

d 8
 If f(x) = x8, then f ( x ) 
dx
 x  8 x 8 1 8 x 7

d 5/2 5 5/2  1 5 3/2

 If f(x) = x5/2, then f ( x ) 
dx
 x   x
2
 x
2
 Rule 2: The Power Rule

Practice Examples:
 Find the derivative of f ( x)  x

d d 1/2
f ( x ) 
dx
 
x  x 
dx

1 1/2 1 1  1/2
 x  x
2 2

1

2 x
 Rule 2: The Power Rule

Practice Examples:
 Find the derivative of f ( x ) 
1
3
x

d  1  d  1/3
f ( x )     x 
dx  x  dx
3

1  1/3 1
 x
3

1  4/3 1
 x  4 / 3
3 3x
Rule 3: Derivative of a Constant Multiple Function

Rule 3: Derivative of a Constant Multiple Function

 If c is any constant real number, then

d d
 cf ( x )  c  f ( x)
dx dx
 Rule 3: Derivative of a Constant Multiple Function

Practice Examples:
 Find the derivative of f ( x ) 5 x 3

d
f ( x )  5 x 3 
dx
d 3
5  x 
dx

5 3x 2 

15 x 2
Rule 3: Derivative of a Constant Multiple Function

Practice Examples:
 Find the derivative of f ( x ) 
3
x

d
f ( x) 
dx
3 x  1/ 2 

 1  3/ 2 
3   x 
 2 

3
 3/ 2
2x
 Rule 4: The Sum Rule

Rule 4: The Sum Rule

d d d
 f ( x ) g ( x )   f ( x )   g ( x ) 
dx dx dx
 Rule 4: The Sum Rule

Practice Examples:
 Find the derivative of f ( x ) 4 x 5  3x 4  8 x 2  x  3

d
f ( x )  4 x 5  3x 4  8 x 2  x  3
dx
d 5 d 4 d 2 d d
4  x   3  x   8  x    x   3
dx dx dx dx dx

4 5 x 4   3 4 x 3   8 2 x   1  0

20 x 4  12 x 3  16 x  1
 Rule 4: The Sum Rule

Practice Examples:
 Find the derivative of
t2 5
g (t )   3
5 t

d  t2 5  d  1 2 
g (t )    3    t  5t  3 
dt  5 t  dt  5 
1 d 2 d 3
  t   5 t 
5 dt dt

1
 2t   5  3t  4 
5
2t 15 2t 5  75
  4 
5 t 5t 4
3.2
The Product and Quotient Rules

d
 f ( x ) g ( x )  f ( x ) g ( x )  g ( x ) f ( x )
dx

d  f ( x )  g ( x ) f ( x )  f ( x ) g ( x )
  
dx  g ( x )   
g ( x )
2
 Rule 5: The Product Rule

 The derivative of the product of two differentiable

functions is given by

d
 f ( x ) g ( x )  f ( x ) g ( x )  g ( x ) f ( x )
dx
 Rule 5: The Product Rule

Practice Examples:
 Find the derivative of f ( x ) 2 x 2  1 x 3  3

d 3 d
f ( x ) 2 x 2  1  x  3    x 3
 3  2 x 2  1
dx dx

2 x 2  13x 2    x 3  34 x 

6 x 4  3x 2  4 x 4  12 x
 x 10 x 3  3x  12 
 Rule 5: The Product Rule

Practice Examples:
 Find the derivative of f ( x )  x 3  
x 1

d 1/2 d 3
f ( x )  x
3

dx
 x  1   x  1 x
1/2

dx
 1  1/2 
 x  x    x1/2  13x 2
3

2 

1
 x 5/2  3x 5/2  3x 2
2
7
 x 5/2  3x 2
2
 Rule 6: The Quotient Rule

 The derivative of the quotient of two differentiable

functions is given by

d  f ( x)  g ( x) f ( x)  f ( x) g ( x)
    g  x  0 
 
2
dx  g ( x)  g ( x )
 Rule 6: The Quotient Rule

Practice Examples:
x
 Find the derivative of f ( x) 
2x  4

d d
2 x  4  ( x )  x 2 x  4 
f ( x )  dx dx
 
2
2 x  4


2 x  4 1  x 2 
 
2
2 x  4

2x  4  2x 4
 
2 x  4  2 x  4 
2 2
 Rule 6: The Quotient Rule

Practice Examples:
 Find the derivative of x2 1
f ( x)  2
x 1
d 2 d 2
 x  1 dx x  1  x  1 dx x  1
2 2

f ( x ) 
 x  1
2 2


 x 2
 12 x    x 2  12 x 
x  1
2 2

2 x3  2 x  2 x3  2 x 4x
 
x  1 x  1
2 2 2 2
3.3
The Chain Rule

d
h( x )  g  f ( x )   g  f ( x )  f ( x )
dx
dy dy du
 
dx du dx
 Deriving Composite Functions

 
2
 Consider the function h ( x )  x  x  12

 To compute h′(x), we can first expand h(x)

h( x )  x  x  1  x 2  x  1 x 2  x  1
2 2

 x 4  2 x 3  3x 2  2 x  1
and then derive the resulting polynomial

h( x ) 4 x 3  6 x 2  6 x  2
 But how should we derive a function like H(x)?

H ( x )  x  x  1
2 100
 Deriving Composite Functions
)  x  x  1
2 100
Ha
Note that is ( xcomposite function:
 H(x) is composed of two simpler functions

f ( x) x 2  x  1 and g ( x )  x100
 So that

 x  x  1
100
H ( x )  g  f ( x )   f ( x ) 
100 2

 We can use this to find the derivative of H(x).

 Deriving Composite Functions
To find the derivative of the composite function H(x):
 We let u = f(x) = x2 + x + 1 and y = g(u) = u100.
 Then we find the derivatives of each of these functions

du dy
 f ( x ) 2 x  1 and  g (u ) 100u 99
dx du
 The ratios of these derivatives suggest that

dy dy du
  100u 99 2 x  1
dx du dx
 Substituting x2 + x + 1 for u we get

dy
H ( x )  100  x  x  1 2 x  1
2 99

dx
 Rule 7: The Chain Rule

 If h(x) = g[f(x)], then

d
h( x)  g  f ( x)  g  f ( x)  f ( x)
dx
 Equivalently, if we write y = h(x) = g(u),
where u = f(x), then
dy dy du
 
dx du dx
 The Chain Rule for Power Functions
 Many composite functions have the special form

h(x) = g[f(x)]
where g is defined by the rule
g(x) = xn (n, a real number)
so that
h(x) = [f(x)]n
 In other words, the function h is given by the power of a
function f.
 Examples:

1
h( x )  x  x  1
2 100
H ( x)  G( x)  2 x 2  3
5  x 
3 3
 The General Power Rule

 If the function f is differentiable and

h(x) = [f(x)]n (n, a real number),

then
d
h( x )   f ( x )  n  f ( x )  f ( x )
n n 1

dx
 The General Power Rule
Practice Examples:
 Find the derivative of G ( x )  x 2  1
Solution
 
 Rewrite as a power function: G ( x )  x 2  1 1/2
 Apply the general power rule:

1 2  1/2 d
G( x )   x  1  x 2
 1
2 dx
1 2
  x  1 2 x 
 1/2

2
x

x2 1
 The General Power Rule
Practice Examples:
 Find the derivative of f ( x )  x 2 2 x  35
Solution
 Apply the product rule and the general power rule:

d 5 d
2 x  3  2 x  3 x 2
5
f ( x )  x 2
dx dx
 x 52 x  3 2   2 x  3 2  x
2 4 5

10 x 2 2 x  3  2 x 2 x  3
4 5

2 x 2 x  3 5 x  2 x  3
4

2 x 2 x  3 7 x  3
4
 The General Power Rule
Practice Examples:
1
 Find the derivative of f ( x ) 
4 x  7
2 2

Solution
 
 Rewrite as a power function: f ( x )  4 x 2  7  2
 Apply the general power rule:

f ( x )  2 4 x  7 
3
2
8 x 
16 x

4 x  7
2 3
 The General Power Rule
Practice Examples: 3
 Find the derivative of f ( x ) 
2x 1 
 
 3 x  2 
Solution
 Apply the general power rule and the quotient rule:

  2x 1  d  2x 1 
f ( x ) 3    
 3 x  2  dx  3 x  2 

 2x 1 
2
 3x  2 2   2 x  13
3    
3x  2 
2
 3 x  2   

3 3 2 x  1
2
 2x 1   6x  4  6x  
2

3    
 3x  2   3x  2    
2 4
3 x  2
3.4
Higher Order Derivatives

2  4   7/3 8  7/3 8
f ( x )     x  x 
9 3 27 27 x 2 3 x

dv d  ds  d 2 s d
a      2  8t  8
dt dt  dt  dt dt
 Higher-Order Derivatives
 The derivative f ′ of a function f is also a function.
 As such, f ′ may also be differentiated.
 Thus, the function f ′ has a derivative f ″ at a point x in the
domain of f if the limit of the quotient
f ( x  h )  f ( x )
h
exists as h approaches zero.
 The function f ″ obtained in this manner is called the
second derivative of the function f, just as the derivative f ′
of f is often called the first derivative of f.
 By the same token, you may consider the third, fourth,
fifth, etc. derivatives of a function f.
 Higher-Order Derivatives
Practice Examples:
 Find the third derivative of the function f(x) = x2/3 and
determine its domain.
Solution
 We have f ( x )  2 x  1/3 and
2  1   4/3
f ( x )     x  x
2  4/3
3 3  3 9
 So the required derivative is

2  4   7/3 8  7/3 8
f ( x )   x  x 
9 3 27 27 x 7/3
 The domain of the third derivative is the set of all real
numbers except x = 0.
 Higher-Order Derivatives
Practice Examples:
 Find the second derivative of the function f(x) = (2x2 +3)3/2
Solution
 Using the general power rule we get the first derivative:

3
f ( x )  2 x  3 4 x  6 x 2 x  3
2 1/2 2 1/2

2
 Higher-Order Derivatives
Practice Examples:
 Find the second derivative of the function f(x) = (2x2 +3)3/2
Solution
 Using the product rule we get the second derivative:

d d
f ( x ) 6 x  2 x  3  2 x  3  6 x 
2 1/2 2 1/2

dx dx
 1
6 x   2 x  3 4 x   2 x  3 6
2  1/2 2 1/2

 2
12 x 2 x  3  6 2 x  3
2 2  1/2 2 1/2

6 2 x  3  2 x 2  2 x 2  3
2  1/2

 
6 4 x 2  3

2x2  3
 Applied Example: Acceleration of a Maglev
 The distance s (in m) covered by a maglev moving along a
straight track t seconds after starting from rest is given by
the function
s = 4t2
 What is the maglev’s acceleration after 30 seconds?
Solution
 The velocity of the maglev t seconds from rest is given by

ds d
v  4t 2  8t
dt dt
 The acceleration of the maglev t seconds from rest is given
by the rate of change of the velocity of t, given by

d d  ds  d 2 s d
a  v     2  8t  8
dt dt  dt  dt dt
or 8 meters per second per second (m/s2).
3.5
Implicit Differentiation and Related Rates

Rocket

y
x
Spectator

Launch Pad
4000 ft
 Differentiating Implicitly
 Up to now we have dealt with functions in the form
y = f(x)
 That is, the dependent variable y has been expressed
explicitly in terms of the independent variable x.
 However, not all functions are expressed explicitly.
 For example, consider
x 2y + y – x2 + 1 = 0
 This equation expresses y implicitly as a function of x.
 Solving for y in terms of x we get
( x 2  1) y  x 2  1
x2  1
y  f ( x)  2
x 1
which expresses y explicitly.
 Differentiating Implicitly
 Now, consider the equation
y4 – y3 – y + 2x3 – x = 8
 With certain restrictions placed on y and x, this equation
defines y as a function of x.
 But in this case it is difficult to solve for y in order to
express the function explicitly.
 How do we compute dy/dx in this case?
 The chain rule gives us a way to do this.
 Differentiating Implicitly
 Consider the equation y2 = x.
 To find dy/dx, we differentiate both sides of the equation:

d d
dx
 y   x 
2

dx

 Since y is a function of x, we can rewrite y = f(x) and find:

d d
dx
 y    f ( x )
2

dx
2

2 f ( x ) f ( x )
dy
2 y
dx

Using chain rule

 Differentiating Implicitly

 Therefore the above equation is equivalent to:

dy
2y 1
dx

 Solving for dy/dx yields:

dy 1

dx 2 y
 Steps for Differentiating Implicitly

 To find dy/dx by implicit differentiation:

1. Differentiate both sides of the equation with
respect to x.
(Make sure that the derivative of any term
involving y includes the factor dy/dx)
2. Solve the resulting equation for dy/dx in
terms of x and y.
 Differentiating Implicitly
Examples
 Find dy/dx for the equation y 3  y  2 x 3  x 8
Solution
 Differentiating both sides and solving for dy/dx we get
d d
dx
 y 3
 y  2 x 3
 x  
dx
8
d d d d d
dx
 y 
3

dx
 y   2 x   x   8
dx
3

dx dx
dy dy
2
3y   6 x 2  1 0
dx dx
dy
dx
3 y 2
 1 1  6 x 2

dy 1  6 x 2
 2
dx 3 y  1
 Differentiating Implicitly
Examples
 Find dy/dx for the equation x 2 y 3  6 x 2  y  12
 Then, find the value of dy/dx when y = 2 and x = 1.
Solution
d 2 3 d d d
dx
 x y  
dx
6 x 2
 
dx
 
y 
dx
12 

d d dy
x 2   y 3   y 3   x 2   12 x 
dx dx dx
2 dy 2 3 dy
3x y  2 xy  12 x 
dx dx
dy
3x y  1 dx  2 xy 3  12 x
2 2

dy 2 xy 3  12 x

dx 1  3 x 2 y 2
 Differentiating Implicitly
Examples
 Find dy/dx for the equation x 2 y 3  6 x 2  y  12
 Then, find the value of dy/dx when y = 2 and x = 1.
Solution
 Substituting y = 2 and x = 1 we find:

dy 2 xy 3  12 x

dx 1  3x 2 y 2
2(1)(2)3  12(1)

1  3(1) 2 (2) 2

16  12

1  12
28

11
 Differentiating Implicitly
Examples
 Find dy/dx for the equation x 2  y 2  x 2 5
Solution
d 2 d 2 d
dx
 x  y 
2 1/2

dx
 x  
dx
5
1 2 2  1/2  dy 
2
 x  y  

2 x  2 y   2 x 0
dx 
 dy 
x  y
2

2  1/2


2 x  2 y  4 x
dx 
dy
xy 2 x  x  y 
2 2 1/2

dx
dy
y 2 x  x  y   x
2 2 1/2

dx

dy 2x  x  y 
2 2 1/2
 x

dx y
 Related Rates
 Implicit differentiation is a useful technique for solving a
class of problems known as related-rate problems.
 Here are some guidelines to solve related-rate problems:

1. Assign a variable to each quantity.

2. Write the given values of the variables and their rate
of change with respect to t.
3. Find an equation giving the relationship between the
variables.
4. Differentiate both sides of the equation implicitly with
respect to t.
5. Replace the variables and their derivatives by the
numerical data found in step 2 and solve the equation
for the required rate of change.
 Applied Example: Watching a Rocket Launch
 At a distance of 4000 feet from the launch site, a spectator
is observing a rocket being launched.
 If the rocket lifts off vertically and is rising at a speed of
600 feet per second when it is at an altitude of 3000 feet,
how fast is the distance between the rocket and the
spectator changing at that instant?

Rocket

y
x
Spectator

Launch Pad
4000 ft
 Applied Example: Watching a Rocket Launch
Solution
1. Let
y = altitude of the rocket
x = distance between the rocket and the spectator
at any time t.
2. We are told that at a certain instant in time
dy
y 3000 and 600
dt
and are asked to find dx/dt at that instant.
 Applied Example: Watching a Rocket Launch
Solution
3. Apply the Pythagorean theorem to the right triangle we
find that x 2  y 2  40002
Therefore, when y = 3000, x  30002  40002 5000

Rocket

y
x
Spectator

Launch Pad
4000 ft
 Applied Example: Watching a Rocket Launch
Solution
4. Differentiate x 2  y 2  40002 with respect to t,
obtaining
dx dy
2 x 2 y
dt dt

5. Substitute x = 5000, y = 3000, and dy/dt = 600, to find

dx
2 5000  2 3000 600 
dt
dx
360
dt

Therefore, the distance between the rocket and the

spectator is changing at a rate of 360 feet per second.
3.6
Differentials

y
T
f(x + x)
y
P dy
f(x)

x
x x + x
x
 Increments
 Let x denote a variable quantity and suppose x changes
from x1 to x2.
 This change in x is called the increment in x and is denoted
by the symbol Dx (read “delta x”).
 Thus,
Dx = x2 – x1
Examples:
 Find the increment in x as x changes from 3 to 3.2.
Solution
 Here, x1 = 3 and x2 = 3.2, so
Dx = x2 – x1 = 3.2 – 3 = 0.2
 Increments
 Let x denote a variable quantity and suppose x changes
from x1 to x2.
 This change in x is called the increment in x and is denoted
by the symbol Dx (read “delta x”).
 Thus,
Dx = x2 – x1
Examples:
 Find the increment in x as x changes from 3 to 2.7.
Solution
 Here, x1 = 3 and x2 = 2.7, so
Dx = x2 – x1 = 2.7 – 3 = – 0.3
 Increments
 Now, suppose two quantities, x and y, are related by an
equation y = f(x), where f is a function.
 If x changes from x to x + Dx, then the corresponding
change in y is called the increment in y.
 It is denoted Dy and is defined by

Dy = f(x + Dx) – f(x)

y

f(x + Dx)
Dy
f(x)

x
x x + Dx
Dx
 Example
 Let y = x3.
 Find Dx and Dy when x changes
a. from 2 to 2.01, and
b. from 2 to 1.98.
Solution
a. Here, Dx = 2.01 – 2 = 0.01
Next, y  f ( x  x )  f ( x )  f (2.01)  f (2)
(2.01)3  23 8.120601  8 0.120601
b. Here, Dx = 1.98 – 2 = – 0.02
Next, y  f ( x  x )  f ( x )  f (1.98)  f (2)
(1.98)3  23 7.762392  8  0.237608
 Differentials
 We can obtain a relatively quick and simple way of
approximating Dy, the change in y due to small change Dx.
 Observe below that near the point of tangency P, the
tangent line T is close to the graph of f.
 Thus, if Dx is small, then dy is a good approximation of Dy.

y
T
f(x + Dx)
Dy
P dy
f(x)

x
x x + Dx
Dx
 Differentials
 Notice that the slope of T is given by dy/Dx (rise over run).
 But the slope of T is given by f ′(x), so we have

dy/Dx = f ′(x) or dy = f ′(x) Dx

 Thus, we have the approximation

Dy ≈ dy = f ′(x)Dx
 The quantity dy is called the differential of y.

y
T
f(x + Dx)
Dy
P dy
f(x)

x
x x + Dx
Dx
 The Differential

 Let y = f(x) define a differentiable function x. Then

1. The differential dx of the independent variable x is

dx = Dx
2. The differential dy of the dependent variable y is
dy = f ′(x)Dx = f ′(x)dx
 Example
 Approximate the value of 26.5 using differentials.
Solution
 Let’s consider the function y = f(x) = x .
 Since 25 is the number nearest 26.5 whose square root is
readily recognized, let’s take x = 25.
 We want to know the change in y, Dy, as x changes from
x = 25 to x = 26.5, an increase of Dx = 1.5.
 So we find
 1   1 

y dy  f ( x )x   1.5    1.5  0.15
 2 x x 25   10 
 Therefore,
26.5  25 y 0.15
26.5  25  0.15 5.15
Some important limits
 End of
Chapter