Sensor and
Transducers
Definition
Devices which perform an input function are
commonly called Sensors because they "sense" a
physical change in some characteristic that changes in
response to some excitation, for example heat or force
and covert that into an electrical signal. Devices which
perform an output function are generally called
Actuators and are used to control some external
device, for example movement.
Both sensors and actuators are collectively known as
Transducers because they are used to convert energy
of one kind into energy of another kind,
for example, a microphone (input device) converts
sound waves into electrical signals for the amplifier to
amplify, and a loudspeaker (output device) converts the
electrical signals back into sound waves and an example
of this type of I/O system is given below.
Common Transducers
Quantity being Input Device Output Device
Measured (Sensor) (Actuator)
Light Dependent Resistor
(LDR) • Lights & Lamps
Light Level Photodiode • LED's &
Photo-transistor Displays
Solar Cell • Fiber Optics
Thermocouple
Thermistor
Temperature Thermostat • Heater
Resistive temperature • Fan
detectors (RTD)
Strain Gauge • Lifts & Jacks
Force/Pressure Pressure Switch • Electromagnet
Load Cells • Vibration
Potentiometer
Encoders • Motor
Position Reflective/Slotted Opto-switch • Solenoid
LVDT • Panel Meters
Tacho-generator • AC and DC
Speed Reflective/Slotted Opto-coupler Motors
Doppler Effect Sensors • Stepper Motor
• Brake
Carbon Microphone • Bell
Sound Piezo-electric Crystal • Buzzer
• Loudspeaker
Analogue and Digital Sensors
Analogue Sensors
Analogue Sensors produce a continuous output signal or
voltage which is generally proportional to the quantity being
measured. Physical quantities such as Temperature, Speed,
Pressure, Displacement, Strain etc. are all analogue quantities
as they tend to be continuous in nature. For example, the
temperature of a liquid can be measured using a thermometer
or thermocouple which continuously responds to temperature
changes as the liquid is heated up or cooled down.
Thermocouple used to produce an Analogue
Signal
Digital Sensors
As its name implies, Digital Sensors produce a
discrete output signal or voltage that is a digital
representation of the quantity being measured.
Digital sensors produce a Binary output signal in the
form of a logic "1" or a logic "0", ("ON" or "OFF"). This
means then that a digital signal only produces discrete
(non-continuous) values which may be outputted as a
single "bit", (serial transmission) or by combining the
bits to produce a single "byte" output (parallel
transmission).
Light Sensor used to produce a Digital
Signal
Signal Conditioning
Then amplification is part of signal conditioning. So when using
analogue sensors, generally some form of amplification (Gain),
impedance matching, isolation between the input and output or
perhaps filtering (frequency selection) may be required before
the signal can be used and this is conveniently performed by
Operational Amplifiers.
Typical Op-amp Filters
Position Sensors
Position Sensors
a variety of devices which are classed as Input
Devices and are therefore called "Sensors" and in
particular those sensors which are Positional in
nature which means that they are referenced either to
or from some fixed point or position. As their name
implies, these types of sensors provide a "position"
feedback.
One method of determining a position, is to use either
"distance", which could be the distance between two
points such as the distance travelled or moved away
from some fixed point, or by "rotation" (angular
The Potentiometer.
The most commonly used of all the "Position Sensors", is the
potentiometer because it is an inexpensive and easy to use
position sensor. It has a wiper contact linked to a mechanical
shaft that can be either angular (rotational) or linear (slider
type) in its movement, and which causes the resistance value
between the wiper/slider and the two end connections to
change giving an electrical signal output that has a proportional
relationship between the actual wiper position on the resistive
track and its resistance value. In other words, resistance is
proportional to position.
Potentiometer Construction
The output signal (V out) from the potentiometer is taken from
the center wiper connection as it moves along the resistive
track, and is proportional to the angular position of the shaft.
Example of a simple Positional Sensing Circuit
While resistive potentiometer position sensors have many
advantages: low cost, low tech, easy to use etc., as a position sensor
they also have many disadvantages: wear due to moving parts, low
accuracy, low repeatability, and limited frequency response.
Inductive Position Sensors.
One type of positional sensor that does not suffer from
mechanical wear problems is the "Linear Variable
Differential Transformer" or LVDT for short. This is an
inductive type position sensor which works on the
same principle as the AC transformer that is used to
measure movement. It is a very accurate device for
measuring linear displacement and whose output is
proportional to the position of its moveable core.
The Linear Variable Differential Transformer
Inductive Proximity Sensors.
Another type of inductive sensor in common use is the
Inductive Proximity Sensor also called an Eddy current
sensor. While they do not actually measure displacement or
angular rotation they are mainly used to detect the presence of
an object in front of them or within a close proximity, hence the
name proximity sensors.
Temperature Sensors
Temperature Sensor Types
Contact Temperature Sensor Types - These types of
temperature sensor are required to be in physical contact with
the object being sensed and use conduction to monitor changes
in temperature. They can be used to detect solids, liquids or
gases over a wide range of temperatures.
Non-contact Temperature Sensor Types - These types of
temperature sensor use convection and radiation to monitor
changes in temperature. They can be used to detect liquids and
gases that emit radiant energy as heat rises and cold settles to
the bottom in convection currents or detect the radiant energy
being transmitted from an object in the form of infra-red
radiation (the sun).
The Thermostat
The Thermostat is a contact type electro-mechanical
temperature sensor or switch, that basically consists of two
different metals such as nickel, copper, tungsten or aluminum
etc. that are bonded together to form a Bi-metallic strip.
The Thermistor
The Thermistor is another type of temperature sensor, whose
name is a combination of the words THERM-ally sensitive res-
ISTOR. A thermistor is a type of resistor which changes its
physical resistance with changes in temperature.
Most types of thermistor's have a Negative
Temperature Coefficient of resistance or (NTC), that is
their resistance value goes DOWN with an increase in
the temperature but some with a Positive
Temperature Coefficient, (PTC), their resistance value
goes UP with an increase in temperature are also
available.
Resistive Temperature Detectors (RTD).
Another type of electrical resistance temperature sensor is the
Resistance Temperature Detector or RTD. RTD's are
precision temperature sensors made from high-purity
conducting metals such as platinum, copper or nickel wound
into a coil and whose electrical resistance changes as a function
of temperature, similar to that of the thermistor. Also available
are thin-film RTD's. These devices have a thin film of platinum
paste is deposited onto a white ceramic substrate.
The Thermocouple
The Thermocouple is by far the most commonly used type of
all the temperature sensing devices due to its simplicity, ease
of use and their speed of response to changes in temperature,
due mainly to their small size. Thermocouples also have the
widest temperature range of all the temperature sensors from
below -200oC to well over 2000oC.
Thermocouple Amplification
The type of amplifier, either discrete or in the form of an
Operational needs to be carefully selected, because good drift
stability is required to prevent recalibration of the thermocouple
at frequent intervals. This makes the chopper and
instrumentation type of amplifier preferable for most
temperature sensing applications.
Other types of Temperature Sensor not mentioned here
include, Semiconductor Junction Sensors, Infra-red and Thermal
Radiation Sensors, Medical type Thermometers, Indicators and
The Light Sensor
Light Sensor
A Light Sensor generates an output signal indicating the
intensity of light by measuring the radiant energy that exists in
a very narrow range of frequencies basically called "light", and
which ranges in frequency from "Infrared" to "Visible" up to
"Ultraviolet" light spectrum.
The light sensor is a passive devices that convert this "light
energy" whether visible or in the infrared parts of the spectrum
into an electrical signal output. Light sensors are more
commonly known as "Photoelectric Devices" or "Photo Sensors"
because the convert light energy (photons) into electricity
(electrons).
Group of light sensors
1. Photo-conductive Cells - These photo devices vary their
electrical resistance when subjected to light.
2. Photo-emissive Cells - These are photo devices which
release free electrons from a light sensitive material such as
caesium when struck by a photon of sufficient energy.
3. Photo-voltaic Cells - These photo devices generate an EMF in
proportion to the radiant light energy received and is similar in
effect to photoconductivity.
4. Photo-junction Devices - These photo devices are mainly
true semiconductor devices such as the photodiode or
phototransistor which use light to control the flow of electrons
and holes across their PN-junction.
The Photoconductive Cell
A Photoconductive light sensor does not produce electricity
but simply changes its physical properties when subjected to
light energy. The most common type of photoconductive device
is the Photo resistor which changes its electrical resistance in
response to changes in the light intensity.
The Light Dependent Resistor
The Light Dependent Resistor Cell
Photo junction Devices
Photo junction Devices are basically PN-Junction light
sensors or detectors made from silicon semiconductor PN-
junctions which are sensitive to light and which can detect both
visible light and infrared light levels. Photo-junction devices are
specifically made for sensing light and this class of
photoelectric light sensors include the Photodiode and the
Phototransistor.
Photo-diode Construction and
Characteristics
"lux" refers to a unit of light
intensity, specifically the
measure of the amount of
visible light falling on a
surface, used to quantify
the level of illumination that
a photodiode is exposed to
when measuring light
intensity
The Phototransistor
An alternative photo-junction device to the photodiode is the
Phototransistor which is basically a photodiode with
amplification. The Phototransistor light sensor has its collector-
base PN-junction reverse biased exposing it to the radiant light
source.
Photo-transistor Construction and Characteristics
Photo-Darlington
Photo Darlington transistors use a second bipolar NPN
transistor to provide additional amplification or when higher
sensitivity of a photo detector is required due to low light levels
or selective sensitivity, but its response is slower than that of an
ordinary NPN phototransistor.
Photovoltaic Cells.
Photovoltaic cells are made from single crystal silicon PN
junctions, the same as photodiodes with a very large light
sensitive region but are used without the reverse bias. They
have the same characteristics as a very large photodiode when
in the dark. When illuminated the light energy causes electrons
to flow through the PN junction and an individual solar cell can
generate an open circuit voltage of about 0.58v (580mV). Solar
cells have a "Positive" and a "Negative" side just like a battery
Characteristics of a typical Photovoltaic Solar Cell.
The Sound sensor
Sound Transducer
Sound is the general name given to "acoustic waves" that have
frequencies ranging from just 1Hz up to many tens of thousands
of Hertz with the upper limit of human hearing being around the
20 kHz, (20,000Hz) range.
Sound Wave Relationship
Where:
Wavelength is the time period of one complete cycle in
Seconds.
Frequency is the number of wavelengths per second in
Hertz.
Velocity is the speed of sound through a transmission
medium in m/s-1.
The Microphone Transducer
The Microphone, also called a "mic", is a sound transducer
that can be classed as a "sound sensor".
Actuators
Actuators
Actuators convert an electrical signal into a
corresponding physical quantity such as movement,
force, sound etc. An actuator is also a transducer
because it changes one type of physical quantity into
another and is usually activated or operated by a low
voltage command signal.
Actuators can be classed as either binary or
continuous devices based upon the number of stable
states their output has.
The Electromechanical Relay
The term Relay generally refers to a device that provides an
electrical connection between two or more points in response to
the application of a control signal. The most common and
widely used type of electrical relay is the electromechanical
relay or EMR.
Electromechanical Relay Construction
Relay Contact Configurations
outputs
inputs
Where:
C is the Common terminal
NO is the Normally Open contact
NC is the Normally Closed contact SPDT (Single Pole Double Throw)
The Linear Solenoid
Another type of electromagnetic actuator that converts
an electrical signal into a magnetic field is called a
Solenoid.
A Linear Solenoid is an electromagnetic device that
converts electrical energy into a mechanical pushing
or pulling force or motion.
When an electrical current is passed through the coils windings,
it behaves like an electromagnet and the plunger, which is
located inside the coil, is attracted towards the center of the coil
by the magnetic flux setup within the coils body, which in turn
compresses a small spring attached to one end of the plunger.
The force and speed of the plungers movement is determined by
the strength of the magnetic flux generated within the coil.
Rotary Solenoids
Most electromagnetic solenoids are linear devices producing a
linear back and forth force or motion. However, rotational
solenoids are also available which produce an angular or rotary
motion from a neutral position in either clockwise, anti-
clockwise or in both directions (bi-directional).
DC Motor
Electrical Motors are continuous actuators that convert
electrical energy into mechanical energy in the form of a
continuous angular rotation that can be used to rotate pumps,
fans, compressors, wheels, etc.
Most used Actuators
Brushed Motor
Brushless Motor
Stepper motor
Servo Motor
The Loudspeaker Transducer
Loudspeakers are also sound transducers that are classed as
"sound actuators" and are the exact opposite of microphones.
Their job is to convert complex electrical analogue signals into
sound waves being as close to the original input signal as
possible.
The principle of operation of the Moving Coil
Loudspeaker is the exact opposite to that of the
"Dynamic Microphone"
SMART SENSORS
What is a smart sensor?
Smart sensors are "sensors and instrument
packages that are microprocessor driven
and include features such as
communication capability and on-board
diagnostics that provide information to a
monitoring system and/or operator to
increase operational efficiency and reduce
maintenance costs."
General Architecture of Smart Sensor
Sensing element/transduction element,
Amplifier,
Sample and hold,
Analog multiplexer,
Analog to digital converter (ADC),
Offset and temperature compensation,
Digital to analog converter (DAC),
Memory,
Serial communication
Processor
Types of Smart Sensors
Optical Sensor
Infrared detector array
Accelerometer
Integrated multisensor
Optical Sensor
Optical sensor is one of the examples of
smart sensor, which are used for measuring
exposure in cameras, optical angle encoders
and optical arrays. Similar examples are
load cells silicon based pressure sensors.
Infrared detector array
Integrated sensor is the infrared detector array
developed at the solid laboratory of the University
of Michigan.
The Infrared-sensing element was developed using
polysilicon -Au thermocouples and thin film
dielectric diaphragm to support the thermocouples.
On-chip multiplexer was fabricated by using silicon
gate MOS processing.
This detector operates over a temperature range of
0 to 100 degree centigrade with a 10msec
response time.
Accelerometer
Accelerometer fabricated at the IBM Research
laboratory at San Jose California, which
consists of the sensing element and
electronics on silicon.
The accelerometer itself is a metal-coated
SiO2 cantilever beam that is fabricated on
silicon chip where the capacitance between
the beam and the substrate provides the
output signal.
Integrated multisensor
Integrated multisensor chip developed at the
electronics research Laboratory University of
California.
This chip contains MOS devices for signal conditioning
with on chip sensor, a gas flow sensor, an infrared
sensing array, a chemical reaction sensor, a
cantilever beam, accelerometer, surface acoustic
wave vapor sensor, a tactile sensor array and an
infrared charge coupled device imager.
This chip was fabricated using conventional silicon
planer processing, silicon micromachining and thin
deposition techniques.
Advantages
Minimum Interconnecting Cables
High Reliability
High Performance
Easy to Design, Use and Maintain
Scalable -Flexible System
Small Rugged Packaging
Minimum Cost
Applications
Bluetooth Smart Sensor Module Rear Panel.
In-chamber and on-wafer sensors.
Monitoring of Temperature Using Smart Sensors
Based on CAN Architecture.
Compatible sensors with microprocessors.
Smart sensors vie for vision applications: smart
sensors can provide the functionality needed for
simple, low-cost machine-vision applications.
A Smart Sensor Architecture for Marine Sensor
Networks
Conclusion
Smart Sensors has developed and proved a new
miniaturized Smart Sensor Network Measurement
System, which represents a paradigm shift from a
centralized to a distributed processing
measurement approach.
It significantly reduces the number and lengths of
cables, the components size, and system weight. It
provides greater flexibility in design, configuration
and installation.
All of these advantages translate into cost savings
throughout the life of a program.
Sensor
Application
Application
Level
Measurement
in Large Vessels
(Tanks, Silos)
Sensor
3RG61 13
Compact Range III
Application
anti-Collision
Sensor
3RG60 14
Compact Range I
Application
Level Measurement in
Small Bottles
Sensor
3RG61 12
Compact Range III
Application
height Sensing
Sensor
3RG60 13
Compact Range II
Application
Quality Control
Sensor
3RG61 12
Compact Range III
Application
Breakage
Sensing
Sensor
3RG61 12
Compact Range
I
Application
Bottle
Counting
Sensor
3RG62 43
Thru Beam
Application
Object Sensing
Sensor
3RG60 12
Compact Range
II
Application
Vehicle Sensing
and
Positioning
Sensor
3RG60 14
Compact Range III
Application
Stack Height
Sensing
Sensor
3RG60 13
Compact Range II
Application
Contour
Recognition
Sensor
3RG61 13
Compact Range III
Application
Diameter Sensing and
Strip Speed Control
sensor
3RG61 12
compact Range III
Application
People Sensing
Sensor
3RG60 12
Compact Range
II
Application
Wire and Rope
Breakage
Monitoring
Sensor
3RG60 12
Compact Range I
Application
Loop Control
Sensor
3RG60 15
Compact Range
II
Application
Verifying
Objects in
Clear Bottles
Sensor
M12 thru
Beam
Application
Flow of Pallets
Carrying Bottles
Sensor
40 Retro
reflective
Application
Counting
Cans
Sensor
K50
Polarized
Application
Counting
Bottles
Sensor
SL18 Retro
reflective
Application
Counting
Cartons
Sensor
K65 Retro
reflective
Application
Car Wash
Sensor
SL Thru
Beam
Application
Reading
Reference
Marks for
Trimming
Sensor
Application
Detecting
Persons
Sensor
K50 Retro
reflective
Applicatio
n
Controlling
Parking
Gate
Sensor
Applicatio
n
End of Roll
Detection
Sensor
K31 Diffuse
Applicatio
n
Detecting
Tab Threads
Sensor
Application
Detecting Caps on
Bottles
Sensor
K20 Diffuse with
Background
Suppression and K31
Application
Counting Packages
Sensor
K80 Retro reflective
Application
Detecting
Components
inside Metal Can
Sensor
K50 Background
Suppression
Application
Determining
Orientation of IC
Chip
Sensor
L50 Laser with
Background
Application
Detecting Items of
Varying Heights
Sensor
K80 Background
Suppression
Application
Detecting
Orientation of IC
Chip
Sensor
Colour Mark or
Application
Controlling
Height of a
Stack
Sensor
SL Thru Beam
Application
Detecting
Jams on a
Conveyor
Sensor
K50 Retro
Application
Counting Boxes
Anywhere on a
Conveyor
Sensor
SL18 Right Angle
Retro reflective
Application
Counting IC
Chip Pins
Sensor
KL40 Fibber
Application
Batch counting
and Diverting
Cans without
Labels
Sensor
K40 Polarized
Application
Detecting
Presence of
Object to Start a
Conveyor
Sensor
K35 Retro
reflective
Application
Detecting
Reflective
Objects
Sensor
K80 Polarized
Retro reflective
Application
Verifying
Liquid in
Vials
Sensor
K35 Fibber
Application
Verifying Screws
are Correctly
Seated
Sensor
KL40 Fibber
Optic
Application
Verifying
Cakes are
Present in
Transparent
Package
Sensor
KL40 Fibber
Application
Verifying
Lipstick
Height before
Capping
Sensor
M5 or M12
Application
Detecting Labels with
Transparent
Background
Sensor
G20 Slot Sensor
Application
Monitoring Objects as
they Exit Vibration
Bowl
Sensor
K35 Fibber Optic
Application
Detecting the
Presence of a Broken
Drill Bit
Sensor
12 mm Normal
Requirements
Application
Detecting Milk
in Cartons
Sensor
Capacitive
Application
Controlling Fill
level of solids in a
bin
Sensor
Capacitive
Application
Detecting Full
Open or
Closed Valve
Position
Sensor
Application
Detecting Presence of
Can and Lid
Sensor
30mm Normal Requirements or
UBERO, 18mm Normal
Requirements Gating Sensor
Application
Detecting Broken
Bit on Milling
Machine
Sensor
18 mm
QUIZ
Explain the elements of a mechatronic system
Thank you…..
