Level 2 of Mechanical Engineering

Metallic Materials Course (MMC)

Teacher : Ing. SAWADOGO

E-mail: [email protected]

Phone : +226 76 93 92 24
Burkina Institute of Technology
Koudougou, Burkina Faso
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 Contents
 Preamble
 General Introduction
 Chapter I: Structure of materials
 Chapter II: Microstructure of metallic alloys
 Chapter III: Iron and iron alloys (production and
characteristics of materials)
 Chapter IV: Mechanical tests
 Chapter V: Heat treatments
 Chapter VI: Degradation of materials
 Chapter VII: Lubrication

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 Preamble
Perpetual research in science and technology offers more and more new
materials and new transformation processes. The development of these new
solutions reinforces those which are traditional or sometimes allow their
evolution.
For this reason, by combining materials science and engineering, training
must, in addition to the traditional, meet the new needs arising from the
contemporary evolution of materials.
Materials are the basis of industry concerns from design to production:
Since the design of the product, the choice of material depends on meeting
the requirements of use ;
The yield of the transformation process is guaranteed, from the start of
production, by the identification and control of the raw material;
During manufacturing, the transformation process must integrate the
evolution of the characteristics of the material;
Finally,
04/07/2025it is necessary to check the conformity of the finished product
3 in
Faced with the need to know the physico-chemical properties of
materials and to control their behavior during its implementation
process and its use, in order to meet industrial expectations, training
must be multidisciplinary and generalist in the sense that it must
include sufficiently broad bases to deal with the diversity of
materials.

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General Introduction
Materials Science uses fundamental notions and emphasizes the structural relationships
and properties of materials. The objective is twofold: to acquire sufficient scientific and
technical knowledge to understand the behavior of the material during its transformation
or its use but also a problem related to the material and to master the means to solve it.
They alone guarantee integration into the company and the evolution of the technician's
level of responsibility.

The multiplicity of available materials means that the design of parts and the use of
materials evolve simultaneously. We start more and more from the function to be fulfilled,
we then choose, not only the material, but also its implementation process. This choice is
made thanks to technical, economic and environmental considerations, brought together in
functional specifications. This evolution is favorable to the appearance of combinations of
materials, multi-materials and makes it possible to meet a set of often contradictory
conditions of implementation and behavior in service.
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The transformation on the basis of the major representative processes of
implementation is developed in terms of the material’s behavior and the
modification of its characteristics by integrating the evolution of traditional
products and the development of more recent products.
In addition, materials interest several functions of the company such as the
design office, methods, quality, production, laboratories, etc.... thus
offering a wide range of outlets in many sectors of activity: construction
naval, aeronautics, packaging, automotive, public works, building,
household appliances, electrical and electronic equipment, leisure,
clothing, footwear.
Apart from the industrial internship, the student will have permanent
contact with the materials through company visits, synthesis activities or
tutored projects. These activities will make it possible to understand certain
specific materials and processes that exist or are under development.
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 Chapter I: Structure of materials
I) Generalties
A metal is made up of a multitude of small polyhedral volumes called "grains" whose size
generally differs from 2 to 20μm and they are limited by areas called grain boundaries.
Grain1

Grain 2

This granular microstructure is well demonstrated by an electron microscope. Each grain makes
it a monocrystal, it is a regular stack of metal ions whose cohesion is ensured by a gas of
electrons.
The orientation of the crystal lattice specific to each grain is different and the material is said
polycrystalline.
In the very particular case where the material consists of only one grain, it is called
monocrystalline.
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•

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In the simplest case (pure metals, solid solutions) all the crystals have an identical
structure and composition: the material is single-phase but in general the material
is polyphase. Each set of crystals of the same structure and composition forming a
distinct phase.

Polyphase polycrystal

The macroscopic properties of a metallic material are directly related to its

structure at the crystalline scale.
II) Interatomic bonds
2.1) Structure of the atom
The atom consists of a nucleus around which the electrons gravitate. The nucleus
is made up of protons and neutrons. The number of protons is equal to the
number Z of electrons. Z is called atomic number.
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It allows to classify the elements in the increasing order of their
number of electrons.
The electrons are distributed around the nucleus on electronic shells of
different energies (K, L, M, etc.) as one moves away from the nucleus
(decreasing binding energy).The furthest peripheral layer is the most
important. Elements that have this saturated layer are very
exceptional (noble gases).
The other elements can acquire this stable structure:
Either by losing electrons: metals;
Either by gaining electrons: non-metals
The interatomic bonds are directly connected to this peripheral layer.
They are mainly of the covalent or metallic ionic type and lead to
specific characteristics of different materials.

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 Connections Materials Characteristics
Ionic NaCl, Al2O3 Poor electrical
conductivity, brittle, high
melting point.
Covalent Si, C, diamond Poor electrical
conductivity, very high
hardness, very high
melting point.
Metallic Na, Fe, Al, Cu Good electrical and
thermal conductivity,
easily deformable.

2.2) Ionic bond

It takes place between the very electropositive and very electronegative
elements. In this bond the electropositive atom donates one or more
electrons to the electronegative atom. This produces ions of opposite
charge. Bonding forces result from the electrostatic attraction between
ions.
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2.3) Covalent bond
This bond opposite to the ionic bond takes place between elements
close to the periodic table. Atoms share electrons to complete their
electronic shells.
2.4) Metallic bond
It is characterized by the fact that the bond electrons are free.
The electronic cloud is the set of free electrons that gravitate around
the nucleus. We can consider the metal as a stack of positive ions
surrounded by a cloud of electrons. These free electrons explain, for
example, the thermal and electrical conductivity properties of metals.
This stacking of ions leads to compact structures which can be
represented by a regular stacking of hard iron.
III) Crystal lattices
A geometrically perfect single crystal is a set of ions regularly
distributed in space. To conveniently describe this arrangement, we
define a
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crystal lattice by a set of nodes obtained from an elementary mesh which
fixes the three-dimensional periodicity of repetition of an elementary
pattern.
3.1) Pure metals
The most frequent crystalline structures represented by pure metals in the
solid state belong to the hexagonal cubic systems.
Three main structures are found there, namely:
The centered cubic structure (CC)
The face-centered cubic (CFC) structure
The compact hexagonal structure (HC)
The same element can have several crystalline structures depending on
the temperature range considered. The element is said to exhibit crystal
polymorphism.
The transition from one form to another is an allotropic transformation.
Example:

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Structure centered cubic (CC)
The mesh is a cube inside which there is an additional atom.

Representative diagrams of the centered cubic (CC) structure

There are two proper atoms per cell:
 A central atom;
 8 atoms with 1/8 of an atom at each vertex.
The atomic spheres are in contact on the long diagonal of the cube. Each atom has 8 neighbors
which correspond to the coordination number.
The mesh space filling rate is 68% (compactness).
C = (Vatom/Vmesh) x 100
The length of an edge a of the cube is of the order of 3 Å(Armstrong)
The length of a bond is L = (aѴ3)/2
Example: Iron(Fe), Chromium(C), Vanadium(V), Molybdenum(D)
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Descriptive analysis
The atoms are located at the 8 vertices of a cube with edge "a" (called the lattice parameter), as
well as at the center of the cube, the diameter of the atoms being such that the central atom is
tangent to the 8 atoms of the vertices , which gives Nc = 8.
If we admit, as in the figure above, to represent the atoms by spheres of radius r (atomic radius),
we deduce that the lattice parameter "a" of a centered cubic metal is given by a = 4 r/Ѵ3. The
number n of atoms per unit cell of the centered cubic structure is equal to 2 (8 / 8 + 1) because
each atom occupying one of the vertices of the cube is common to 8 neighboring cubes.
We can therefore, from a single cell, calculate the density ρ of a centered cubic metal by means
of the relation ρ = 2M / (N.a³), where M is the atomic mass of the metallic element and
N is Avogadro's number (6.02. 10²³).
Face-centered cubic structure (CFC)

The mesh is a cube inside on which there is an atom on each side.

The atoms are located at the 8 vertices of a cube with edge "a" as well as at the center of the 6
faces of the cube. Each atom located at a vertex is tangent to the atoms occupying the center of
the faces passing through this vertex.
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These faces are divided into 4 vertical faces above and 4 vertical faces
below belonging to the 4 upper cubes and the 4 lower cubes of which it
constitutes the common vertex, and 4 horizontal faces in the plane
separating these two series of 4 cubes. We therefore obtain for the face-
centered cubic lattice a value of Nc equal to 12(Nc = 12). The face-
centered cubic lattice therefore has a denser arrangement of atoms than
the centered cubic lattice, which is confirmed by the number of atoms per
cell equal to 8/8 + 6/2 = 4, which gives for the density ρ = 4M/(N.a³). The
diagonal of a face of the cube corresponds to 4 atomic rays, ie for the
mesh parameter: a = 4 r / Ѵ2.

Representative diagrams of the face-centered cubic (CFC)

structure
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Compact hexagonal structure(HC)

The atoms are located at the 12 vertices of a right prism with a hexagonal base, at the
centers of the two base planes, and on an intermediate plane between the two base
planes on which there are three atoms offset so that they are at the contact of the
atoms of the basic planes (see figure below). Each atom located on a base plane has as
immediate neighbors the 6 atoms located at the vertices of the hexagon forming this
plane, and the (2 x 3) atoms of the 2 intermediate planes located above and below the
base plane considered. These last contacts with the atoms of the intermediate planes
are only possible if the ratio c/a of the height "c" of the prism to the mesh parameter "a"
(side of the hexagon) is equal to 1.633 Ѵ(8 / 3 ).

In addition, there are two types of metals with a compact hexagonal structure, those for
which (c/a) = 1.633 and therefore Nc = 12, and those for which (c/a) > 1.633 and
therefore Nc = 6.
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 Representative diagrams of the compact hexagonal structure (HC)
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3.2) Metallic alloys
From the point of view of their crystalline structure, metal alloys can be
divided into four types:
Primary substitution solid solutions
When the atomic radii(r) of "solvent" and "solute" are little different from
each other, in practice ∆r/solvent < 15% (1st rule of Hume-Rotery), the
atoms of the solute" B" replace one by one the atoms of the solvent "A"
on its own lattice. If moreover the two crystal lattices are the same, the
substitution can be total. There is then complete mutual solubility with
continuous variation of the lattice parameter as a function of the
increasing content of "B". This variation is often almost linear (Vegard's
law).
NB: ∆r = rsolvent – rsolute
Solid solutions of secondary substitution or intermediates
The crystal lattice of these alloys is in general different from that of the
pure elements "A" and "B", and their domain of existence in composition
is around
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For example, in the case of light alloys such as Al-Cu or Al-Mg, the phases responsible for "age
hardening" are respectively Al2Cu and Al3Mg2. Contrary to the compounds defined, these alloys
can present relatively important deviations from the stoichiometry.

Solid insertion solutions

Despite the great compactness of the crystal lattices that we have just described, there are voids
between the spheres representing the atoms. Provided that their atomic radius is lower than that
of the atoms constituting the initial network, additional atoms can come to occupy these voids.

There are two possible types of insertion, the insertion in a tetrahedral site where the inserted
atom occupies the center of a tetrahedron whose vertices are formed by atoms of the metallic
solvent, and the insertion in an octahedral site where the inserted atoms occupy the center of an
octahedron.

Example: Insertions in tetrahedral site and in octahedral site in the face-centered cubic structure.

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 Octahedral site Tetrahedral site

here are only 4 elements with atomic ray smaller than metal atoms and are therefore likely to fit into
these sites. These elements are respectively hydrogen, oxygen, carbon and nitrogen. These elements in
particular play a preponderant role, even at very low levels, in stainless steels as in ordinary steels.

 Defined compounds

With a crystalline structure very different from that of pure metals, they are distinguished from other
types of alloys by interatomic bonds, either ionic or covalent, which recall those of compounds defined in
chemistry.

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This is the case for example of carbides, oxides or nitrides. Thus for steels
we will find Fe3C cementite, Fe4N nitrides, and for stainless steels Cr23C6
carbides. These compounds may also exhibit very small deviations from the
stoichiometry.
3.3) Crystal lattice defects
The crystalline state has so far been considered as a perfect stack of atoms
regularly distributed according to a system specific to the material
considered. Metallic crystals are actually imperfect and have local defects.
These defects can be geometrically classified into point defects, linear
defects and defects distributed over an internal surface. They further
separate into thermodynamically stable faults and thermodynamically
unstable faults.
The latter cannot by definition exist under equilibrium conditions and their
presence increases the free energy of the system. On the contrary, the
stable defects increase the entropy whose influence opposes the increase in
energy. Their number is determined by an equilibrium concentration which
depends on the temperature.
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Point faults
They can be divided into four categories according to their geometry:
The punctual gaps ;
The interstitial atoms;
Substitution atoms;
Complex point defects.
In a crystal at thermodynamic equilibrium there are always unoccupied
lattice nodes which constitute vacancies. Their number depends on the
temperature but, when the latter is varied, it may take some time
before the number of vacancies reaches its new state of equilibrium.
However, if the number of vacancies is likely to vary, it must be
concluded that these "atomic voids" are capable of migrating inside
the network and of crossing its limits. This mechanism results from
successive permutations between a gap and a neighboring atom which
moves to fill it.
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Each interstitial atom in particular causes a deformation of the lattice
in its vicinity. A similar deformation, but of less importance, is caused
by the third type of point defect, namely the presence of a foreign
atom substituted for an atom of the metal under consideration
(substitution atom). The fourth type of defect evoked (complex point
defect) consists of the accumulation of two defects, for example
vacancy + interstitial atom.

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Dislocation
A dislocation is a linear defect corresponding to a discontinuity in the
organization of the crystalline structure. A dislocation can be viewed simply
as a "quantum" of elemental strain within a crystal possessing a long range
stress field.
It is characterized by:
the direction of his line;
a vector called “Burgers vector” whose norm represents the amplitude of
the deformation that it generates.
Dislocations are of paramount importance for the physical properties of
crystalline materials:
it is they which, while moving, propagate the plastic deformation. They
thus allow the shaping of metal parts and are responsible for their
ductility;
the deformations of the crystal lattice that they induce facilitate the
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diffusion of the atoms. They can thus trap faults around them (Cottrell's
 Motions of dislocations

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3.4) Overview of ceramics
A ceramic material is solid at room temperature and is neither metallic nor organic.
Ceramic objects are made by solidification at high temperature of a wet plastic
paste (mineral glasses), or sintering (agglutination by heating) of a previously
compressed dry powder, without going through a liquid phase (polycrystalline
ceramics); by assimilation, the term “ceramic” designates the objects thus
manufactured. We can distinguish several categories of ceramics:

domestic (traditional) ceramics, mainly pottery, one of the oldest forms of

ceramics, predating metalworking, which uses clay soils as a base material;

building ceramics which can be distributed in this way:
earthenware or sandstone tiles used in tiling work;
sanitary porcelain, used in sanitary appliances;
masonry bricks, tiles, terracotta facing or roofing elements;
ceramic art, which abandons the utilitarian function to focus on decorative or
aesthetic value;
technical ceramics, particularly developed in the 20th century, and which uses
materials based on oxides, carbides, nitrides, etc.
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Some illustrations on ceramics

Teke Vase, DR Congo Bearing parts, composite ceramic (silicon

nitride Si3N4)

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Insulator used to tender ferrites(iron oxide) to reduce electromagnetic
interference
electrical cables

Electrical insulator
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Electronic transformer: ceramic core 30