C2.

1 Structure and bonding

 C2 1.1 Chemical bonding
Key words:
A compound contains two or more elements which are chemically combined
Covalent bonding – sharing electrons
Ionic bonding – transferring electrons

Chemical bonding: involves either transferring or sharing electrons in

the highest occupied energy level (outer shell) of atoms to achieve
the electronic structure of a noble gas (full outer shell)
Compounds are usually very different from the elements that have combined together to make
them, for example, Sodium reacting with Chlorine gas to form sodium chloride

HEAT

2Na + Cl2 2NaCl

Sodium + chlorine sodium chloride (new compound)
 Representing ionic bonding
Key words
Ionic bond – The electrostatic force of attraction between positively and negatively charged
ions
Ion – A charged particle produced by the loss or gain of electrons
Ionic bonds form between METALS and NON-METALS.
Ionic bonding involves the transfer of ELECTRONS.
Metallic Ions are POSITIVELY charged (ANIONS), they LOSE electrons.
Non-metallic elements are NEGATIVELY charged (CATIONS), they GAIN electrons

Representing ionic bonding

•The elements in Group 1 react with the
elements in Group 7
•Groups 1 elements can each lose one
electron to gain the stable electronic
structure of a noble gas
•This electron can be given to an atom
from Group 7, which then also achieves The electrostatic attraction between the oppositely
the stable electronic structure of a noble charged Na+ ions and Cl- ions is called ionic bonding
gas
 Common ions
To become positively charged an atom must lose electrons. To become negatively charged and
atom must gain electrons.
 C2 1.2 Ionic bonding
Key words
The ionic bonding between charged particles result in an arrangement of ions called a giant
structure (giant lattice)

Sodium chloride, NaCl, forms Magnesium oxide: sometimes the atoms reacting need to
when sodium and chlorine react gain or lose two electrons to gain a stable noble gas
together. It contains oppositely structure
charged ions held together by
strong electrostatic forces of Magnesium ions have the
attraction – the ionic bonds. The formula Mg2+, while oxide ions
ions form a regular lattice in have the formula O2-
which the ionic bonds act in all
directions Calcium Chloride: each calcium atom (2, 8, 8, 2) needs to
lose two electrons but each chlorine atom (2, 8, 7) needs to
gain only one electron.

This means that two chlorine atoms

react with every one calcium atom,
CaCl2
 C2 1.3 Formulae of ionic compounds
Key points
 The charges on the ions in an ionic compound always cancel each other out (they
are neutral)
 The formula of an ionic compound shows the ratio of ions present in the compound

Ionic Ratio of ions in the Formula of the

compound compound compound
Sodium Na+ : Cl- NaCl Groups of metals
chloride 1:1 •The atoms of Group 1 elements form 1+
Magnesium Mg2+ : O2- MgO
oxide 1:1 ions, e.g. Li+
Calcium Ca2+ : Cl- CaCl2 •The atoms of group 2 elements form 2+
chloride 1:2
ions, e.g. Ca2+

More complicated ions: Groups of non-metals

Name of ion Formula of ion •The atoms of Group 7 elements form 1-
Hydroxide OH- ions, e.g. F-
Nitrate NO3- •The atoms of Group 6 elements form 2-
ions, e.g. S2-
Carbonate CO32-
sulfate SO42-
 C2 1.4 Covalent bonding
Key words
Covalent bonding – the attraction between two atoms that share one or more pairs of electrons
Simple molecule – simple covalently bonded structures, e.g. HCl or H 2O
Giant covalent structure – huge numbers of atoms held together by a network of covalent bonds, e.g.
diamond or graphite
When atoms share pairs Example: Hydrogen chloride:
of electrons, they form
covalent bonds. +
These bonds between
atoms are strong
Some covalently
Simples covalent molecules:
bonded substances
consist of simple Oxygen O2
molecules such as H2, Cl2, Hydrogen H2
O2, HCl, H2O, NH3 and CH4 Carbon Dioxide CO2 Water H2O Methane CH4
 Others have giant
covalent structures Giant covalent structures:
(macromolecules), such Diamond Graphite Silicon
as diamond, graphite and dioxide
silicon dioxide
 C2 1.5 Metals
Key points
 The atoms in metals are built up layer upon layer in a regular pattern,
this means they form crystals.
They are another example
of a giant structure

 We can think of metallic bonding as positively charged metal ions which are held together
by electrons from the outermost shell of each metal atom. Strong electrostatic attraction
between the negatively charges electrons and positively charged
ions bond the metal ions to each other

 The delocalised electrons are free to move throughout the

giant metallic lattice, they form a ‘sea’ of free electrons
C2.2 Structure and properties
 C2 2.1 Giant ionic structures
• Conduct electricity when MOLTEN (melted) and in an AQUEOUS SOLUTION (dissolved in
water)
• DO NOT conduct electricity as a SOLID
• Have high MELTING and BOILING points
• Usually SOLID at ROOM TEMPERATURE
Ion = an atom with a positive or negative charge.
Cations = metal atoms lose electrons to form positively charged ions called cations.
Anions = Non-metal atoms gain electrons to form negatively ions called anions.

Ionic compounds have a lattice structure,

with a regular arrangement of ions, held
together by electrostatic forces between
oppositely charged ions.
 C2 2.2 Simple molecules
Simple covalent molecules:
• Low melting point
• Low boiling point
• Poor conductor of electricity

Why? Ammonia
• Because there are weak intermolecular
forces between molecules.

Charge?
• Simple molecules have no overall charge,
so they cannot carry electrical charge.
Therefore, substances made of simple
molecules do not conduct electricty.
 C2 2.3 Giant Covalent structure
DIAMOND GRAPHITE
• In diamond, all the electrons in the outer •In graphite, only three of the four electrons in
shell of each carbon atom (2.4) are the outer shell of each carbon atom (2.4) are
involved in forming covalent bonds. involved in covalent bonds.
• Diamond is very hard – it is the hardest •Graphite is soft and slippery – layers can
natural substance, so it is often used to easily slide over each other because the weak
make jewellery and cutting tools. forces of attraction are easily broken. This is
why graphite is used as a lubricant.
• Diamond has a very high melting and
•Graphite conducts electricity – the only non-
boiling point – a lot of energy is needed
metal to do so. The free electron from each
to break the covalent bonds.
carbon atom means that each layer has
• Diamond cannot conduct electricity – delocalized electrons,
there are no free which can carry charge.
electrons or ions to It is often used as an
carry a charge. electrode for this reason.
 C2 2.4 Giant metallic structure
• We can bend and shape metals because the layers of atoms (or ions) in a giant
metallic structure can slide over each other

• Delocalised electrons in metals enable electricity and heat

to pass through the metal easily

• Alloys are made from two or more different metals. The different sized atoms of
the metals distort the layers in the structure, making it more difficult for them to
slide over each other, and so make the alloys harder than pure metals

Pure metal: Alloy:

• If a shape memory alloy is deformed, it can return to its original shape on heating
 C2 2.5 The properties of polymers
The properties of polymers depend on:
• The monomers used to make it. Eg. Poly(ethene) and Nylon
• The conditions chosen to carry out the reaction. Low
density (LD) and high density (HD) poly(ethene) are produced
using different catalysts and reaction conditions.

Thermosoftening polymers consist of individual, tangled

polymer chains. Thermosetting polymers consist of
polymer chains with cross-links between them so that
they do not melt when they are heated.
 C2 2.6 Nanoscience
Nanoscience is the study of small particles that are between 1 and 100 nanometres in size
1 nanometre (1 nm) = 1 x 10-9 metres (0.000 000 001m or a billionth of a metre)

Nanoparticles show different properties to the same materials in bulk and have a high surface
area to volume ratio.

This may lead to the development of new computers, new catalysts, new coatings, highly
selective sensors, stronger and lighter construction materials, and new cosmetics such as sun
tan creams and deodorants

New developments in
nanoscience are very exciting
but will need more research
into possible issues that might
arise from their increased use
 C2 3.1 Atomic Structure
Keywords
Mass number – the total number of protons and neutrons in an atoms nucleus
Atomic number – the number of protons in an atoms nucleus
Isotope – atoms with the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons.

Particle Relative mass

Mass number
12
C
Proton 1 Nucleus
(protons and neutrons)
Neutron 1
Electron very small Electron 6 Atomic number

Isotopes- Same atomic no. different mass no.

Number of protons = atomic
1
number
1
H 2
1
H 3
1
H
Number of electrons = atomic
number

Number of neutrons = mass

Protons = 1 Protons = 1 Protons = 1
number – atomic number Electron = 1 Electron = 1 Electron = 1
Neutron = 0 Neutron = 1 Neutron = 2
 C2 3.2 Masses of atoms and moles
Keywords
Relative atomic mass (Ar) – mass of an atom compared to the mass of carbon-12.
(Same as an atoms mass number)
Relative formula mass (Mr) - the sum of the relative atomic masses of the atoms in a molecule.
Mole – the relative formula mass of a substance in grams

RELATIVE FORMULA MASS –

EXAMPLE 1 Moles
NaCl
The mass of 1 mole of
Ar: Na (23) Cl(35.5) carbon - 12 is 12 g.
Mr = 23 + 35.5 = 58.5
The mass of 1 mole of
EXAMPLE 2 NaCl is 58.5 g.
H2 O
The mass of 1 mole of
Ar: H(1) Cl(16) H2O is 18 g.
Mr = 1 + 1 + 16 = 18
 C2 3.3 , 3.4 Percentages and Equations

Percentage mass Number of atoms of element x Ar

of an element = x 100
in a compound Mr of compound

What percentage of the mass of magnesium oxide (MgO) is Chemical equations

magnesium?

Ar : Mg (24), O (16)
H2 + Cl2  2HCl

Chemical equations tell us the

Percentage by mass 1 x 24
number of molecules that are
of magnesium in = x100 reacted and produced.
magnesium oxide 24+16
The total number of atoms on
= 60 %
either side of the equation is the
same.
3 H2 + N2  2 NH3
This equation tells us that 3 hydrogen molecules reacts with 1 nitrogen molecule to
make 2 ammonia (NH3) molecules.
 C2 Yields

Keywords
Yield – the amount of useful product obtained from a reaction.

Products need to be made as cheaply as possible.

Chemists need to make sure the reaction creates as
much product as possible.
Yield is usually less than
Theoretical Yield expected – 4 reasons:
Maximum calculated amount of a product that 1. Reaction may be incomplete
could be formed from a given amount of reactants. 2. Some product is lost
3. Other unwanted reactions
Actual Yield may occur making a
The actual amount of product obtained from a different product.
chemical reaction. 4. Reaction may be reversible

Percentage Yield
actual yield
Percentage yield = x 100
theoretical yield
 C2 3.6 Reversible reactions

Reversible reaction – a reaction where products can react together to make the original reactants.

This arrow shows a reaction is reversible.

EXAMPLES
in acid in alkali
HLit H+ + Lit-
Red litmus Blue litmus

heat
ammonium chloride ammonia + hydrogen chloride
NH4Cl NH3 + HCl
 C2 3.7 Analysis Substances

Paper Chromatography - a technique used to separate mixtures of soluble substances.

Instrumental Methods
Paper chromatography can be
used to detect additives Modern instrumental analysis is now preferred in
industry.
Samples are put onto filter paper.
Advantages are modern instrumental analysis is
The paper is placed in a small that it is:
amount of solvent (usually water)

As the solvent rises the chemicals Accurate

in the substances separate.
Rapid
The diagram on the left shows a Sensitive (you can use very small samples.
chromatogram.

You can see the unknown is a

The main disadvantage is that it is more
mixture of A and B
expensive.
unknown

Additive A

Additive B
 C2 3.8 Instrumental analysis

Gas chromatography – this is an instrumental method used to separate compounds.

Mass spectrometer – this is an instrumental method used identify substances. It does this by
measuring it’s relative molecular mass (Mr)

How gas chromatography works+:

1. Mixture is vaporised.
2. A “carrier” gas moves the vapour through the
coiled column.
3. The different compounds have different
attractions to the material in the column and
therefore travel at different speeds.
4. Different compounds are detected at different
times, we say they have different retention times.

5. A gas chromatograph is produced as seen on the

right.
6. This chromatograph shows there was a mixture
of 6 different compounds it also shows most was
compound F and least was compound A
 C2 4.1 Rates of Reactions
Keywords Examples
• Rate of reaction – The speed at which a reaction takes place • Fast reactions = Burning, explosions
• Slow reaction = Rusting, apple browning

the amount of reactants used or products formed

Rate of reaction =
time
slow
The slope of the line at any given time tells us the rate of a
reaction at that time. The steeper the line the faster the fast
reaction.

How to measure the sate of 2. Measure the volume of gas 3. Measure the rate at which a
a reaction. produced in a reaction at solid appears. Do this by
given time intervals. timing how long it takes for a
1. Measure the rate at which the solution to go cloudy.
mass of a reaction changes if a
gas is given off.
 C2 4.2, 4.3, 4.4 – Collision Theory and changing the rate
Keywords
• Concentration – A measure of how much solute is dissolved in a fixed volume of solvent.
• Surface area– The total area of all the surfaces of an object or substance

Collision Theory Factors affecting Rate

• For particles to react they need to 1. Temperature
collide.
• Higher temperature = faster reaction
• They also need enough energy to
react when they collide e.g. And egg cooks faster in boiling water than warm water
• The minimum energy needed is • Particles have more energy = move faster
called the activation energy. – More effective collisions (collide with more energy)
– Collide more frequently

2. Concentration 3. Surface area (SA)

• More concentrated = • Solid broken up into smaller pieces = larger SA
• Greater surface area = faster reaction
more particles
• More surface area = more particles on the surface
• More particles = more therefore more frequent collisions
collisions = faster reaction • A = Smaller SA (block)
• B = Larger SA (powder)
 C2 4.5, 4.6 - Catalysts
Keywords
• Catalyst – A substance that speeds up the rate of a reaction without being used
up in the reaction

FACTS:
• Many chemical processes use catalysts to
increase rate of production of products Catalysts – disadvantages
• Catalysts help to lower the temperature and
pressure needed = less energy needed = saves •Catalysts are often
money
transition metals. These can
• Different chemical reactions require different be toxic. If they get into the
catalysts. environment they can build
up in living things.
• Catalysts lower the activation energy of a reaction.

• Catalysts are normally used as powders or pellets to give

them as big surface area as possible.
 Facts:
C2 4.7, 4.9 Exothermic and • During a chemical reaction there is usually a
Endothermic reactions transfer of energy between the reactant and the
surroundings.
Keywords
• Endothermic – reaction that takes heat energy in, decreasing the temperature of the reaction mixture
and its surroundings
• Exothermic – reaction that releases heat energy, increasing the temperature of the reaction mixture
and its surroundings

Endothermic
• Takes in heat energy / temperature decreases.

• Endothermic reactions include: Using energy transfers from reactions

– Photosynthesis
Exothermic
– Dissolving ammonium nitrate
– Thermal decomposition
•Hand warmers
Exothermic •Self heating cans.
• Gives out heat energy / temperature increases
• Most reactions are exothermic Endothermic
• All combustion reactions are exothermic
•Cold packs
E.g. Methane + Oxygen
• Explosions – release a lot of heat and gases very quickly
 C2 4.8 Energy and
reversible reactions
In a reversible reaction one reaction is exothermic and the other endothermic.

Energy absorbed = endothermic

The amount of energy
absorbed in one direction is
A + B C + D always the exact same
amount of energy released
in the other direction.

Energy released = exothermic

Know this example

endothermic
CuSO4.5H2O CuSO4 + 5H2O
Hydrated copper sulphate Anhydrous copper sulphate + water
exothermic
BLUE WHITE
 C2 4.5, 4.6 - Catalysts
Keywords
• Catalyst – A substance that speeds up the rate of a reaction without being used
up in the reaction

FACTS:
• Many chemical processes use catalysts to
increase rate of production of products Catalysts – disadvantages
• Catalysts help to lower the temperature and
pressure needed = less energy needed = saves •Catalysts are often
money
transition metals. These can
• Different chemical reactions require different be toxic. If they get into the
catalysts. environment they can build
up in living things.
• Catalysts lower the activation energy of a reaction.

• Catalysts are normally used as powders or pellets to give

them as big surface area as possible.
 C2 5.1 Acids and Alkalis

Keywords
• Acid – A substance that produce H+ ions in water.
• Alkali – A soluble base that produces OH- in water.
• Base – A substance that neutralises an acid

pH Scale: State Symbols

• Universal indicator is used to State symbols are used in

tell you pH. equations and tell you whether
something is a solid, liquid, gas or
an aqueous solution
Solid (s)
pH 1-6- Acid Liquid (l)
Gas (g)
pH 7- Neutral *
Aqueous solution (aq)
pH 8-14 Alkali- An important alkali is *Is when a soluble solid is
ammonium salts which are used as dissolved in water
fertilisers
 C2 5.2 Naming Salts
Keywords
• Salt:Compound formed when hydrogen in an acid is replaced by metal.

Salts made when metals react nitric acid are called nitrates.

Lithium + Nitric acid  Lithium Nitrate + Hydrogen

Salts made when metals react with sulfuric acids are called sulfates.

Potassium + Sulfuric Acid  Potassium Sulfate + Hydrogen

Salts made when metals react with hydrochloric acid are called chlorides.

Magnesium + Hydrochloric acid  Magnesium Chloride + Hydrogen

 C2 5.2-5.3 Making Salts From
Acids And bases
Keywords
• Neutralisation- Reaction between acid and base
• Precipitate- An insoluble solid formed by a reaction in a solution.
Making Soluble Salts- Acid and Metals
Making Soluble Salts- Acid and Bases
Salts can be made by reacting an acid and metal
Salts can be made by reacting an acid with a
Acid + Metal  a Salt + Hydrogen base.

Making Soluble Salts-Acids and Alkalis Acid + Bases  a Salt + Water

Salts can be made by reacting an acid with an Practical: A base is added to the acid until no
alkali.
more will react. Any left over solid is filtered
Acid + Alkali  a Salt + Water off.
Evaporate the water to form salt crystals
Practical- An indicator can be used to show when
the acid and alkali have completed reacted.
Making Insoluble salts-
Evaporate the water to form salt crystals
Combing two salt solutions can make an insoluble solid
Neutralisation symbol equation: form.
H+(aq) + OH–(aq) ➞ H2O(l) The solid formed is called a precipitate.
 C2 5.4-5.5 Electrolysis

Keywords
• Electrolysis: Decomposing a compound into elements using energy from a D.C supply.
• Oxidation: Lose Electrons
• Reduction:Gain Electrons

FACTS
To do electrolysis you must dissolve or melt the
compound so the ions are free to move.

-Positive ions go to negative electrode and are reduced.

-Negative ions go to the positive electrode and oxidised.

When you do electrolysis with solutions:

At the negative electrode: Metal will be produced on the
electrode if it is less reactive than hydrogen. Hydrogen will be
produced if the metal is more reactive than hydrogen.

At the positive electrode: oxygen is formed at positive electrode

unless you have a halide ion (Cl-, I-, Br-) then you will get chlorine,
bromine or iodine formed at that electrode.
C2 5.6 Extraction of Aluminium

-Aluminum is manufactured by electrolysis of

molten aluminum oxide.

-Aluminum oxide has a very high melting point

so is mixed with molten cryolite to lower the
temperature required to carry out the
electrolysis.

-Aluminium goes to the negative electrode and

sinks to bottom.

-Oxygen forms at positive electrodes. The

oxygen reacts with the carbon electrode
making carbon dioxide causing damage. The
electrode needs replaced due to this reaction.
 C2 5.7-8 Extraction of Aluminium
and electroplating

What will you get if you electrolyse brine?

Brine is Sodium Chloride Solution

Positive electrode- Chlorine gas is formed

Negative electrode- Hydrogen gas is formed

What is left behind in solution: Sodium Ions

and Hydroxide ions which make sodium
hydroxide.
Uses of the products from the
electrolysis of brine
Electroplating: The coating an object with a
thin layer of metal by electrolysis.
Chlorine Gas- Bleach and PVC
This can protect the metal of make it look
Hydrogen gas- Food industry- making
more attractive.
margarine
E.G Jewellery and cutlery
Sodium hydroxide- Bleach and soap