Gender studies
Lecturer : Shamsa Kanwal
V. Gender and Development
• Colonial and Capitalistic Perspectives of Gender
• Gender Analysis of Development Theories;
Modernization Theory, World System Theory,
Dependency Theory, Structural Functionalism.
• Gender Approaches to Development: Women in
Development (WID), Women and Development
(WAD), Gender and Development (GAD); Gender
Critique of Structural Adjustment Policies (SAPs).
• Globalization and Gender
Colonial and Capitalistic Perspective
Capitalist perspective of the gender
• Western pattern of life is highly centralized
with the capitalist mindset
• Thought of most the time about the financial
gains
• Most likely to ponder upon the capitalism
Colonial and Capitalistic Perspective
• The combined
– force of free trade economy,
– private ownership
– even the workforce maxim
– employee and employer relations
• could be beneficial in getting the maximum benefits
from the streamline of gender in the society.
Colonial and Capitalistic Perspective
Colonial perspective of the gender
• The ordinary people and the daily lives can
disrupt from the interventions of capitalist
mindset
• Women oppression could rise but this is not a
full truth
• Capitalism creates divide among people
– Leads to hoarding of capital
– Exploitation Chain
Colonial and Capitalistic Perspective
• The capitalist mode of production
– is the way that hindered the performance of
working class
– The community can get the real meaning of
working style in all aspects
• Profit Motive
– The gender relations is important in exploration
of different aspects in the society
Difference between
Agrarian and Industrialized Societies
• Women in:
– Labor Market
– Politics and Governance
– Education
– Health
– Media
Gender and Development - Theories of Development
• What is Development
– Process or event or act of growing and progressing or causing
something to grow
– It is the idea of advancing forward and making progress, it
might lead to things getting larger or smaller
– It can also be the process of creating something new
– In Economic Sense: Economic Development is:
• Growth of Economy
• Progress of Trade
• Creation of Infrastructural Projects
– In Political Sense: Political Development is:
• Improvement, strengthening or progress of political institutions
• Creation of public service projects
• Social Institutions Development
Gender and Development - Theories of Development
• Development may also be:
– Technological
– Cultural
– Environmental
• Basically any kind of advancement is categorized as
development
– Most important in all of them is:
• Personal Development
– Professionally
– Biologically
– Academically
– Psychologically
Gender and Development - Theories of Development
• Theories of Development
– These theories provide:
• Justifications
• Explanations
– As to why and how traditional societies and underdeveloped states
may progress
– What can be the pattern that they follow for development
– What interactions do they have during development
– What is their focus in development
• Development of Units
• Development of Whole
– May ponder upon factors which lead to development
• What factors are there?
– Beneficiaries of development
Gender and Development - Theories of Development
• Theories of Development as a summary:
– Modernization Theory
• Modernization theory studies the process of social evolution and the
development of societies.
– World Systems Theory
• World Systems Theory, is an approach to world history and social change that
suggests there is a world economic system in which some countries benefit
while others are exploited.
– Dependency Theory
• Dependency theory states that resources flow from a "periphery" of poor and
underdeveloped states to a "core" of wealthy states, enriching the latter at the
expense of the former.
– Structural Functionalism
• Structural Functionalism is a sociological theory that attempts to explain why
society functions the way it does by focusing on the relationships between the
various social institutions that make up society (e.g., government, law,
Gender and Development - Theories of Development
• Modernization Theory
– Focuses on the process whereby society goes through
industrialization, urbanization and other social changes that
transforms an individual’s life
– Explain how traditional societies become modern
– Important perspective since 1950s
– Movement towards the socio-economic, political and other
systems found in Western Europe and North America from 17 th
Century and spread towards others
– Modernization taken as synonymous to Westernization
– Process of Modernization includes:
• Economic Growth
• Change in Social, Political and Cultural structures
Gender and Development - Theories of Development
• Core Assumptions and Statement – MT
– Constructed in 3 waves – first one is 1950, and then
in 60s
– Economic Development
• Through Mass media
• Diffusion of technical and social innovations are promoted
as essential for modernization
– Literacy and Cultural Development
• Mass Media can teach literacy and skills etc
• Mass Media presents a state of mind favorable to
modernity
Gender and Development - Theories of Development
• Core Assumptions and Statement – MT
– National Identity Development
• Support for identities of new nations and democratic policies can be
gained through media
• Mechanization, Industrialization and GNP are essentials for economic
growth
• Focus on favorable conditions of industrialization and how socio-
polico-cultural factors impact growth
• Not mere an update, required societal and contextual changes
• Not the same as philosophical concept of modernity
– modernity originally understood as both a process
of disenchantment and alienation
– a set of problems related to the issue of time, problems produced by the
transformation of European society
• Modernization different and broader than industrialization
Gender and Development - Theories of Development
• Core Assumptions and Statement – MT
– National Identity Development Continued…
• Political modernization should be done alongside
Economic modernization i.e. a move towards western style
of democracy
• The third-world failed to go through these changes:
– Left behind
– Must follow the first world countries now
– Avoid mistakes made by the first world countries
Gender and Development - Theories of Development
• World Systems Theory
– Modern Nation state exists within broad economic, political and
legal framework which is called world systems
– States can be understood with reference to the World System
– Considers the world to be capitalistic & tries to understand it
– World system is defined as a social system, comprising of:
• Boundaries
• Structures
• Members
• Rules
• Coherence
– World System defined as World Economy
• Integration and Interdependence created through market
• Constant struggle from two or more groups for dominance
Gender and Development - Theories of Development
• World Systems Theory
– An approach to world history and social change suggesting
that there exists a world economic system and in it some
countries benefit while others are exploited
• There is global inequality
• A nation’s economic system can be understood with reference to its
world system
– Countries within the system are recognized as:
• The Core (Exploitative and Dominant)
• Peripheral (Exploited)
• Semi Periphery (Sharing both features)
Gender and Development - Theories of Development
• World Systems Theory – The Core
– Most Benefitted countries
• North Western Europe as first core region
– Have centralized governments, bureaucracies and
army
• This empowers elite class to control Int. trade and benefit
from it
– Move away from feudalism
• Peasant now work as cheap labor in manufacturing sectors
• Agriculture become commercial
• With technological improvement both sectors allow for
growth
Gender and Development - Theories of Development
• World Systems Theory – The Periphery
– Countries have weak national govt. and under
control of foreign countries
– Export raw material to the core
– Coercive labor practices and exploit them to limit of
enslavement
– Unequal trade relations – Core takes away surplus
• Latin America and African Region – bonded labor
– Work to provide goods and benefits to the core
– Locally established aristocracy works for self interest
and favors core
Gender and Development - Theories of Development
• World Systems Theory – The Semi Periphery
– Lying in between two extremes
• They are ex-cores or peripheries are growing
• Perform function of buffer between core and periphery
– These regions have confrontation between govt. and elites
– Limited access to:
• Banking
• Control of Trade
– High Cost
– High Quality
– Exploiters of periphery and exploited by core
• What they extract from periphery:
– Either transferred to core
Gender and Development - Theories of Development
• Dependency Theory
– Explains economic development of a state in terms of
external influences, political, cultural or economic on national
development policies
– Suggests, in order to grow developing nations depend on
developed nations – hence they cannot exercise autonomy so
remain under influence
• Neo-Colonialism: Colonial Legacy continues controlling developing
nations
– International Finance
– Capitalism
Gender and Development - Theories of Development
• Dependency Theory – Central Propositions of the
Theory
– Underdevelopment is different from undeveloped
• Former means that resources are not efficiently used
• Latter means they are not being used at all
– Countries are poor
• Forcefully integrated in European Economic System
• Made mere producers of Raw Material and Cheap Labor
• Denied competitive opportunity in the market
Gender and Development - Theories of Development
– Usage of resources need to be altered from that used
by developed states
• Developing and Underdeveloped states need to devise
their own mechanism and patterns of usage
– Every country should protect and articulate its own
national interest
• Can only be attained when poor of society are catered for
Gender and Development - Theories of Development
• Dependency Theory – Central Propositions of
the Theory
– Within a dependant state, there exists an elite which
supports the dominant state
• They don’t (do) intentionally ignore poor
• They find economic growth emerging from liberal
economic principles
• The relation of dependency is a voluntary association
Gender and Development - Theories of Development
• Structural Functionalism
– See society as an amalgamation of parts all of which work together
to promote solidarity and stability
– Society is a system of complex, functional and interconnected units
that produce, as a whole, stability and order
• Interconnected so they impact each other as well
• If one part weakens the whole system is affected
• If one part weakens, other has to show strength
– Focus on organization of society and relations of its social units
– Institutions like economy, politics, religion, culture etc. are the main
interconnected units in the broadest sense
– It is deterministic – individuals can deviate, but still society will
determine their behaviors
– It is abstract and objective – despite structure not being tangible, it
Gender and Development - Theories of Development
• Structural Functionalism
– Rules and Law exist to dictate institutions, actions and
behaviors
– Society is equated to an organism and its parts are equated to
organs
• Organs of state
• Each part has a function to perform to maintain overall stability
• Each part is aware of its function and abrupt social change is
disruptive
– Likewise in the International system each country has a
function and this function guides their placement on the scale
of development
– Global inequality is hence justified
Response to Development
Theories:
–Women in Development
–Women and Development
–Gender and Development
Gender and Development
• With the advent of industrialization and
globalization, new theories have emerged
to justify these new systems
• Development theories have developed
explaining relations and roles of state
• Some theorists oppose these
development models as being biased
Women in Development (WID)
• Approach to Development Projects
• Emerged in 1970s – emphasizing treatment of women
issues in development projects
• Women be integrated in global economies
– Their status improves
– Overall development
• Women in low income group have significant productive
contributions, yet their participation is underestimated and
discounted
– Only attention given to their reproductive and nurturing role
• Women Suffer in Different domains despite development
projects
• With modernization women are excluded from mechanized
Women in Development (WID)
• Women who migrate
– Concentrated in low paid jobs and unskilled work
– Kept to the informal sector
– Comparatively the husbands have been
mainstreamed
– Economic Crisis created due to this
• More exploitation
• Tackling of women poverty a crucial economic
goal
Women in Development (WID)
• Objectives
– World Bank will assist fuller integration of women
– Support recognition of women in economy
– Facilitate full access to women
– Reduce socio-legal and economic constraints
– Improve effectiveness of institutions towards women
• How to do it?
• Employment Opportunities
• Training, Education and Extension
• Credit Facilities (UPAP - Pakistan)
• Technical Cooperation
• Research and Studies on Women Participation
Women
Women and Development
• Emerged in Mexico 1975
• Takes on Neo-Marxists and Dependency Theorists
• Studies women and capitalism (exploitation)
• Criticizes modernization theory and WID
• Concerned with relation of patriarchy and capitalism
– believe women always contribute to economy
• Women always part of development but their
relation to development needs to be studied
• Women only portrayed to maintain support structure
• Integration in Development allows for inequality
Women and Development
– Benefits of development will come when
patriarchy and global inequalities are dealt with
– Position will improve when internal structure
becomes equitable
– Current approaches ignores women’s
perspectives
– Women recognized as part of economy but
undervalued and inequality maintains
Women and Development
– Exploitation of women is explained in general, not
specific to class or race
– Improvement when international structures are
equitable
– Concerned with
• International structures
• Class inequalities should be addressed
• Only concern with productive sector
– Discounts influence of patriarchal ideology and
position of women in the reproductive sector
Gender and Development
• Emerged in 1980s as response to WID due to its
failure to bring qualitative changes to women’s lives
• Focus on socio-economic and politico-cultural forces
• Focus on socially determined relation of men and
women – talks about gender equality
• Concerned in society with women’s:
• Role
• Responsibilities
• Expectations
• Talks about development for all – male & female
• Says gender creates bias, so development is
hampered and people cant attain their potential
Gender and Development
• Women more disadvantaged than man
– Need to transform gender relation to provide equal opportunities
– Equality should be in
• Choices
• Freedom to choose their role
• Focus on women needs
• Opportunity and treatment in employment
• Decision making
• Gender Equality would improve development
• Women’s empowerment is a mere means to achieve gender
parity (equality)
• Re-modeling of legal institutional framework and societal
attitudes regarding women’s contributions
• Women Empowerment and Training
Difference of WID from WAD and GAD
• WID focuses on the need to integrate women in
the development process
– WAD claims that they have been integrated for a long
time
• WID focuses on women exploitation and
empowerment
– GAD suggests that even men can be victim of inequality
• WID focuses on economic and productive role of
women
– GAD openly focuses on women being hindered by
social structure
Difference of WID from WAD and GAD
• WID focuses on eradicating institutions
– WAD suggests institutional change but that due to
institutions being capitalistic
– GAD focuses on narrowing down gender difference
and changing social attitudes
• WID argues for providing access to resources and
opportunities
– WAD and GAD focuses on women being undervalued
• WID doesn’t associate exploitation of women to
class or capitalism
– WAD does associate it due to capitalism
Difference of WID from WAD and GAD
• WID gives a more detailed plan on programs
and change
– GAD and WAD do not have a specialized
framework or any proper program
• WID considers women’s exploitation due to
them being out of the system
– WAD and GAD considers their exploitation due to
being part of the system (the effect of capitalism)
Structural Adjustment Policies(SAPs)
• Structural Adjustment Policies are economic policies
– which countries must follow in order to qualify for new World Bank and
International Monetary Fund (IMF) loans
– help them make debt repayments on the older debts owed to commercial banks,
governments and the World Bank
• SAPs generally require countries to
– devalue their currencies against the dollar;
– lift import and export restrictions;
– balance their budgets and not overspend;
– remove price controls and state subsidies
• Criticisms
– Undermine National Sovereignty
– Neo-colonialism (control by colonial power through econ. pressures)
– Privatization
– Austerity
Structural Adjustment Policies
• Effect on Women
– Higher rate of unemployment for women:
• A study done in Egypt showed that during a period of structural
adjustment, unemployment increased due to job cuts in the public
sector.
– unemployment for males increased to 10 percent,
– unemployment for females increased to a staggering 40.7 percent
– Increase in workload due to the double burden:
• Social programs such as health programs and educational programs
help women take care of their families by taking care of the sick
and educating children, things traditionally done by women.
• Because of these traditional roles, cuts in social programs transfer
the work back to women, increasing their work burden at home.
Structural Adjustment Policies
• Effect on Women
– Women are more likely to be pulled out of school: Due to the increase in work
needing to be done at home because of cuts in social programs, mothers are
much more likely to pull their daughters out of school to help with the work.
• How can these harmful consequences be reversed in highly indebted
nations?
– Debt relief is an important part of the solution.
– Debt relief will take money that was used to service heavy debt loads, and
recycle it back into the social sector thus diminishing the harmful effects of
debt on women
– Debt relief and debt cancellation have been proven to renew spending to
important social sectors
– Even beyond debt relief, we must prevent loan programs from having such
negative effects by demanding fair and responsible lending practices for poor
nations
Gender and Globalization
• Define gender and Globalization
• Modes of development across the society pre-and-post globalization and
liberalization have affected women and men differently.
• Now understand gender with the reference of three engines of
Globalization
• Technics
• Economy
• politics
• Understand how processes of social and economic change are impacting
on how we define Masculinity and Femininity
• To analyse the changing political economy of reproduction - of
reproduction and production (to link these processes)
Strategic Gender Needs of women (SGNs)
• What women or men require in order to:
– improve their position or status in regard to each
other
– placing them in greater control of themselves
– Doesn’t limit them to the restrictions imposed by
socially defined roles.
• They are long-term (i.e. they aim to improve
positions)
• They also intend to remove restrictions
Strategic Gender Needs of women (SGNs)
• Are less visible as they seek to change attitudes.
• Examples of addressing SGNs include actions:
– giving rights to land
– inheritance
– credit and financial services
– increasing participation of women in decision-
making
– creating equal opportunities to employment (equal
pay for equal work)
– improving social systems.
Practical Gender Needs of women (PGNs)
• Needs women identify in their socially accepted roles
in society.
• Practical gender needs do not challenge, although
they arise out of:
– gender divisions of labor
– women’s subordinate position in society.
– These needs are a response to immediate perceived
necessity
– identified within a specific context.
– They are practical in nature
– often stem from inadequacies in living conditions
•
