Chapter 5: Other Relational Languages

Query-by-Example (QBE)
Datalog
Query-by-Example (QBE)
Basic Structure
Queries on One Relation
Queries on Several Relations
The Condition Box
The Result Relation
Ordering the Display of Tuples
Aggregate Operations
Modification of the Database
QBE Basic Structure
A graphical query language which is based (roughly) on the
domain relational calculus
Two dimensional syntax system creates templates of relations
that are requested by users
Queries are expressed by example
QBE Skeleton Tables for the Bank
Example
QBE Skeleton Tables (Cont.)
Queries on One Relation
Find all loan numbers at the Perryridge branch.
_x is a variable (optional; can be omitted in above query)
P. means print (display)
duplicates are removed by default
To retain duplicates use P.ALL
Queries on One Relation (Cont.)
Display full details of all loans
P._x
P._y P._z
Method 1:
Method 2: Shorthand notation
Queries on One Relation (Cont.)
Find names of all branches that are not located in Brooklyn
Find the loan number of all loans with a loan amount of more than $700
Queries on One Relation (Cont.)
Find the loan numbers of all loans made jointly to Smith
and Jones.
Find all customers who live in the same city as Jones
Queries on Several Relations
Find the names of all customers who have a loan from
the Perryridge branch.
Queries on Several Relations (Cont.)
Find the names of all customers who have both an account and
a loan at the bank.
Negation in QBE
Find the names of all customers who have an account at the
bank, but do not have a loan from the bank.
means there does not exist
Negation in QBE (Cont.)
Find all customers who have at least two accounts.
means not equal to
The Condition Box
Allows the expression of constraints on domain variables
that are either inconvenient or impossible to express within
the skeleton tables.
Complex conditions can be used in condition boxes
E.g. Find the loan numbers of all loans made to Smith, to
Jones, or to both jointly
Condition Box (Cont.)
QBE supports an interesting syntax for expressing alternative
values
Condition Box (Cont.)
Find all account numbers with a balance between $1,300 and
$1,500
Find all account numbers with a balance between $1,300 and
$2,000 but not exactly $1,500.

Condition Box (Cont.)
Find all branches that have assets greater than those of at least
one branch located in Brooklyn
The Result Relation
Find the customer-name, account-number, and balance for alll
customers who have an account at the Perryridge branch.
We need to:
Join depositor and account.
Project customer-name, account-number and balance.
To accomplish this we:
Create a skeleton table, called result, with attributes customer-
name, account-number, and balance.
Write the query.
The Result Relation (Cont.)
The resulting query is:
Ordering the Display of Tuples
AO = ascending order; DO = descending order.
E.g. list in ascending alphabetical order all customers who have an
account at the bank





When sorting on multiple attributes, the sorting order is specified by
including with each sort operator (AO or DO) an integer surrounded
by parentheses.
E.g. List all account numbers at the Perryridge branch in ascending
alphabetic order with their respective account balances in
descending order.
Aggregate Operations
The aggregate operators are AVG, MAX, MIN, SUM, and CNT
The above operators must be postfixed with ALL (e.g.,
SUM.ALL.or AVG.ALL._x) to ensure that duplicates are not
eliminated.
E.g. Find the total balance of all the accounts maintained at
the Perryridge branch.
Aggregate Operations (Cont.)
UNQ is used to specify that we want to eliminate duplicates
Find the total number of customers having an account at the bank.
Query Examples
Find the average balance at each branch.
The G in P.G is analogous to SQLs group by construct
The ALL in the P.AVG.ALL entry in the balance column
ensures that all balances are considered
To find the average account balance at only those branches
where the average account balance is more than $1,200, we
simply add the condition box:
Query Example
Find all customers who have an account at all branches located
in Brooklyn.
Approach: for each customer, find the number of branches in
Brooklyn at which they have accounts, and compare with total
number of branches in Brooklyn
QBE does not provide subquery functionality, so both above tasks
have to be combined in a single query.
Can be done for this query, but there are queries that require
subqueries and cannot be expressed in QBE always be done.
In the query on the next page
CNT.UNQ.ALL._w specifies the number of distinct branches in
Brooklyn. Note: The variable _w is not connected to other variables
in the query
CNT.UNQ.ALL._z specifies the number of distinct branches in
Brooklyn at which customer x has an account.
Query Example (Cont.)
Modification of the Database Deletion
Deletion of tuples from a relation is expressed by use of a D.
command. In the case where we delete information in only some
of the columns, null values, specified by , are inserted.
Delete customer Smith




Delete the branch-city value of the branch whose name is
Perryridge.
Deletion Query Examples
Delete all loans with a loan amount between $1300 and $1500.
For consistency, we have to delete information from loan and
borrower tables
Deletion Query Examples (Cont.)
Delete all accounts at branches located in Brooklyn.
Modification of the Database Insertion
Insertion is done by placing the I. operator in the query
expression.
Insert the fact that account A-9732 at the Perryridge
branch has a balance of $700.
Modification of the Database Insertion (Cont.)
Provide as a gift for all loan customers of the Perryridge branch, a
new $200 savings account for every loan account they have, with
the loan number serving as the account number for the new
savings account.

Modification of the Database Updates
Use the U. operator to change a value in a tuple without changing
all values in the tuple. QBE does not allow users to update the
primary key fields.
Update the asset value of the Perryridge branch to $10,000,000.




Increase all balances by 5 percent.
Microsoft Access QBE
Microsoft Access supports a variant of QBE called Graphical
Query By Example (GQBE)
GQBE differs from QBE in the following ways
Attributes of relations are listed vertically, one below the other,
instead of horizontally
Instead of using variables, lines (links) between attributes are used
to specify that their values should be the same.
Links are added automatically on the basis of attribute name,
and the user can then add or delete links
By default, a link specifies an inner join, but can be modified to
specify outer joins.
Conditions, values to be printed, as well as group by attributes are all
specified together in a box called the design grid
An Example Query in Microsoft Access QBE
Example query: Find the customer-name, account-number and
balance for all accounts at the Perryridge branch
An Aggregation Query in Access QBE
Find the name, street and city of all customers who have more
than one account at the bank
Aggregation in Access QBE
The row labeled Total specifies
which attributes are group by attributes
which attributes are to be aggregated upon (and the aggregate
function).
For attributes that are neither group by nor aggregated, we can still
specify conditions by selecting where in the Total row and listing the
conditions below
As in SQL, if group by is used, only group by attributes and
aggregate results can be output

Datalog
Basic Structure
Syntax of Datalog Rules
Semantics of Nonrecursive Datalog
Safety
Relational Operations in Datalog
Recursion in Datalog
The Power of Recursion
Basic Structure
Prolog-like logic-based language that allows recursive queries;
based on first-order logic.
A Datalog program consists of a set of rules that define views.
Example: define a view relation v1 containing account numbers
and balances for accounts at the Perryridge branch with a
balance of over $700.
v1(A, B) : account(A, Perryridge, B), B > 700.
Retrieve the balance of account number A-217 in the view
relation v1.
? v1(A-217, B).
To find account number and balance of all accounts in v1 that
have a balance greater than 800
? v1(A,B), B > 800

Example Queries
Each rule defines a set of tuples that a view relation must contain.
E.g. v1(A, B) : account(A, Perryridge, B), B > 700 is
read as
for all A, B
if (A, Perryridge, B) e account and B > 700
then (A, B) e v1
The set of tuples in a view relation is then defined as the union of
all the sets of tuples defined by the rules for the view relation.
Example:
interest-rate(A,

5) : account(A, N, B), B < 10000
interest-rate(A,

6) : account(A, N, B), B >= 10000
Negation in Datalog
Define a view relation c that contains the names of all customers
who have a deposit but no loan at the bank:
c(N) : depositor(N, A), not is-borrower(N).
is-borrower(N) :borrower (N,L).
NOTE: using not borrower (N, L) in the first rule results in a
different meaning, namely there is some loan L for which N is not
a borrower.
To prevent such confusion, we require all variables in negated
predicate to also be present in non-negated predicates
Named Attribute Notation
Datalog rules use a positional notation, which is convenient for
relations with a small number of attributes
It is easy to extend Datalog to support named attributes.
E.g., v1 can be defined using named attributes as
v1(account-number A, balance B) :
account(account-number A, branch-name Perryridge, balance B),
B > 700.

Formal Syntax and Semantics of Datalog
We formally define the syntax and semantics (meaning) of
Datalog programs, in the following steps
1. We define the syntax of predicates, and then the syntax of rules
2. We define the semantics of individual rules
3. We define the semantics of non-recursive programs, based on a
layering of rules
4. It is possible to write rules that can generate an infinite number of
tuples in the view relation. To prevent this, we define what rules are
safe. Non-recursive programs containing only safe rules can only
generate a finite number of answers.
5. It is possible to write recursive programs whose meaning is unclear.
We define what recursive programs are acceptable, and define their
meaning.
Syntax of Datalog Rules
A positive literal has the form
p(t
1
, t
2
..., t
n
)
p is the name of a relation with n attributes
each t
i
is either a constant or variable
A negative literal has the form
not p(t
1
, t
2
..., t
n
)
Comparison operations are treated as positive predicates
E.g. X > Y is treated as a predicate >(X,Y)
> is conceptually an (infinite) relation that contains all pairs of
values such that the first value is greater than the second value
Arithmetic operations are also treated as predicates
E.g. A = B + C is treated as +(B, C, A), where the relation +
contains all triples such that the third value is the
sum of the first two
Syntax of Datalog Rules (Cont.)
Rules are built out of literals and have the form:
p(t
1
, t
2
, ..., t
n
) : L
1
, L
2
, ..., L
m
.

head body
each of the L
i
s is a literal
head the literal p(t
1
, t
2
, ..., t
n
)
body the rest of the literals
A fact is a rule with an empty body, written in the form:
p(v
1
, v
2
, ..., v
n
).
indicates tuple (v
1
, v
2
, ..., v
n
) is in relation p
A Datalog program is a set of rules
Semantics of a Rule
A ground instantiation of a rule (or simply instantiation) is the
result of replacing each variable in the rule by some constant.
Eg. Rule defining v1
v1(A,B) : account (A,Perryridge, B), B > 700.
An instantiation above rule:
v1(A-217, 750) :account(A-217, Perryridge, 750),
750 > 700.
The body of rule instantiation R is satisfied in a set of facts
(database instance) l if
1. For each positive literal q
i
(v
i,1
, ..., v
i,ni
) in the body of R, l contains
the fact q
i
(v
i,1
, ..., v
i,ni
).
2. For each negative literal not q
j
(v
j,1
, ..., v
j,nj
) in the body of R, l does
not contain the fact q
j
(v
j,1
, ..., v
j,nj
).
Semantics of a Rule (Cont.)
We define the set of facts that can be inferred from a given set of
facts l using rule R as:
infer(R, l) = {p(t
1
, ..., t
n
) | there is a ground instantiation R of R
where p(t
1
, ..., t
n
) is the head of R, and
the body of R is satisfied in l }
Given an set of rules 9 = {R
1
, R
2
, ..., R
n
}, we define
infer(9, l) = infer(R
1
, l) infer(R
2
, l) ... infer(R
n
, l)
Layering of Rules
Define the interest on each account in Perryridge
interest(A, l) : perryridge-account(A,B),
interest-rate(A,R), l = B * R/100.
perryridge-account(A,B) :account(A, Perryridge, B).
interest-rate(A,5) :account(N, A, B), B < 10000.
interest-rate(A,6) :account(N, A, B), B >= 10000.
Layering of the view relations
Layering Rules (Cont.)
A relation is a layer 1 if all relations used in the bodies of rules
defining it are stored in the database.
A relation is a layer 2 if all relations used in the bodies of rules
defining it are either stored in the database, or are in layer 1.
A relation p is in layer i + 1 if
it is not in layers 1, 2, ..., i
all relations used in the bodies of rules defining a p are either stored
in the database, or are in layers 1, 2, ..., i
Formally:
Semantics of a Program
Define I
0
= set of facts stored in the database.
Recursively define l
i+1
= l
i
infer(9
i+1
, l
i
)
The set of facts in the view relations defined by the program
(also called the semantics of the program) is given by the set of
facts l
n
corresponding to the highest layer n.
Let the layers in a given program be 1, 2, ..., n. Let 9
i
denote the
set of all rules defining view relations in layer i.
Note: Can instead define semantics using view expansion like
in relational algebra, but above definition is better for handling
extensions such as recursion.
Safety
It is possible to write rules that generate an infinite number of
answers.
gt(X, Y) : X > Y
not-in-loan(B, L) : not loan(B, L)
To avoid this possibility Datalog rules must satisfy the following
conditions.
Every variable that appears in the head of the rule also appears in a
non-arithmetic positive literal in the body of the rule.
This condition can be weakened in special cases based on the
semantics of arithmetic predicates, for example to permit the rule
p(A) :- q(B), A = B + 1
Every variable appearing in a negative literal in the body of the rule
also appears in some positive literal in the body of the rule.
Relational Operations in Datalog
Project out attribute account-name from account.
query(A) :account(A, N, B).
Cartesian product of relations r
1
and r
2
.
query(X
1
, X
2
, ..., X
n
, Y
1
, Y
1
, Y
2
, ..., Y
m
) :
r
1
(X
1
, X
2
, ..., X
n
), r
2
(Y
1
, Y
2
, ..., Y
m
).
Union of relations r
1
and r
2
.
query(X
1
, X
2
, ..., X
n
) :r
1
(X
1
, X
2
, ..., X
n
),
query(X
1
, X
2
, ..., X
n
) :r
2
(X
1
, X
2
, ..., X
n
),
Set difference of r
1
and r
2
.
query(X
1
, X
2
, ..., X
n
) :r
1
(X
1
, X
2
, ..., X
n
),
not r
2
(X
1
, X
2
, ..., X
n
),
Updates in Datalog
Some Datalog extensions support database modification using + or
in the rule head to indicate insertion and deletion.
E.g. to transfer all accounts at the Perryridge branch to the
Johnstown branch, we can write
+ account(A, Johnstown, B) :- account (A, Perryridge, B).
account(A, Perryridge, B) :- account (A, Perryridge, B)

Recursion in Datalog
Suppose we are given a relation
manager(X, Y)
containing pairs of names X, Y such that Y is a manager of X (or
equivalently, X is a direct employee of Y).
Each manager may have direct employees, as well as indirect
employees
Indirect employees of a manager, say Jones, are employees of
people who are direct employees of Jones, or recursively,
employees of people who are indirect employees of Jones
Suppose we wish to find all (direct and indirect) employees of
manager Jones. We can write a recursive Datalog program.
empl-jones (X) :- manager (X, Jones).
empl-jones (X) :- manager (X, Y), empl-jones(Y).
Semantics of Recursion in Datalog
Assumption (for now): program contains no negative literals
The view relations of a recursive program containing a set of
rules 9 are defined to contain exactly the set of facts l
computed by the iterative procedure Datalog-Fixpoint
procedure Datalog-Fixpoint
l = set of facts in the database
repeat
Old_l = l
l = l infer(9, l)
until l = Old_l
At the end of the procedure, infer(9, l) _ l
infer(9, l) = l if we consider the database to be a set of facts that
are part of the program
l is called a fixed point of the program.
Example of Datalog-FixPoint Iteration
A More General View
Create a view relation empl that contains every tuple (X, Y)
such that X is directly or indirectly managed by Y.
empl(X, Y) :manager(X, Y).
empl(X, Y) :manager(X, Z), empl(Z, Y)
Find the direct and indirect employees of Jones.
? empl(X, Jones).
Can define the view empl in another way too:
empl(X, Y) :manager(X, Y).
empl(X, Y) :empl(X, Z), manager(Z, Y.


The Power of Recursion
Recursive views make it possible to write queries, such as
transitive closure queries, that cannot be written without
recursion or iteration.
Intuition: Without recursion, a non-recursive non-iterative program
can perform only a fixed number of joins of manager with itself
This can give only a fixed number of levels of managers
Given a program we can construct a database with a greater
number of levels of managers on which the program will not work
Recursion in SQL
SQL:1999 permits recursive view definition
E.g. query to find all employee-manager pairs

with recursive empl (emp, mgr ) as (
select emp, mgr
from manager
union
select manager.emp, empl.mgr
from manager, empl
where manager.mgr = empl.emp )
select *
from empl
Monotonicity
A view V is said to be monotonic if given any two sets of facts
I
1
and I
2
such that l
1
_ I
2
, then E
v
(I
1
) _ E
v
(I
2
), where E
v
is the
expression used to define V.
A set of rules R is said to be monotonic if
l
1
_ I
2
implies infer(R, I
1
) _ infer(R, I
2
),
Relational algebra views defined using only the operations:
[, o, , , ,, and (as well as operations like natural join
defined in terms of these operations) are monotonic.
Relational algebra views defined using may not be monotonic.
Similarly, Datalog programs without negation are monotonic, but
Datalog programs with negation may not be monotonic.
Non-Monotonicity
Procedure Datalog-Fixpoint is sound provided the rules in the
program are monotonic.
Otherwise, it may make some inferences in an iteration that cannot
be made in a later iteration. E.g. given the rules
a :- not b.
b :- c.
c.
Then a can be inferred initially, before b is inferred, but not later.
We can extend the procedure to handle negation so long as the
program is stratified: intuitively, so long as negation is not
mixed with recursion

Stratified Negation
A Datalog program is said to be stratified if its predicates can be
given layer numbers such that
1. For all positive literals, say q, in the body of any rule with head, say, p
p(..) :- ., q(..),
then the layer number of p is greater than or equal to the layer
number of q
2. Given any rule with a negative literal
p(..) :- , not q(..),
then the layer number of p is strictly greater than the layer number of q
Stratified programs do not have recursion mixed with negation
We can define the semantics of stratified programs layer by layer,
from the bottom-most layer, using fixpoint iteration to define the
semantics of each layer.
Since lower layers are handled before higher layers, their facts will not
change, so each layer is monotonic once the facts for lower layers are
fixed.
Non-Monotonicity (Cont.)
There are useful queries that cannot be expressed by a stratified
program
E.g., given information about the number of each subpart in each
part, in a part-subpart hierarchy, find the total number of subparts of
each part.
A program to compute the above query would have to mix
aggregation with recursion
However, so long as the underlying data (part-subpart) has no
cycles, it is possible to write a program that mixes aggregation with
recursion, yet has a clear meaning
There are ways to evaluate some such classes of non-stratified
programs

Forms and Graphical User Interfaces
Most naive users interact with databases using form interfaces
with graphical interaction facilities
Web interfaces are the most common kind, but there are many
others
Forms interfaces usually provide mechanisms to check for
correctness of user input, and automatically fill in fields given key
values
Most database vendors provide convenient mechanisms to create
forms interfaces, and to link form actions to database actions
performed using SQL
Report Generators
Report generators are tools to generate human-readable
summary reports from a database
They integrate database querying with creation of formatted text and
graphical charts
Reports can be defined once and executed periodically to get
current information from the database.
Example of report (next page)
Microsofts Object Linking and Embedding (OLE) provides a
convenient way of embedding objects such as charts and tables
generated from the database into other objects such as Word
documents.
A Formatted Report
End of Chapter
QBE Skeleton Tables for the Bank
Example
An Example Query in Microsoft Access QBE
An Aggregation Query in Microsoft Access QBE
The account Relation
The v1 Relation
Result of infer(R, I)