CHAPTER – 3

Charging System

1
 Requirements of the charging system

 Supply the current demands made by all loads.

 Supply whatever charge current the battery demands.
 Operate at idle speed.
 Supply constant voltage under all conditions.
 Have an efficient power-to-weight ratio.
 Be reliable, quiet, and have resistance to contamination.
 Require low maintenance.
 Provide an indication of correct operation.

2
 Methods of Generating Electric Current
When a conductor moves in a magnetic field voltage is induced in the
conductor (generator action).
A dc generator is an electrical machine which converts
mechanical energy into direct current electricity. This energy
conversion is based on the principle of production of dynamically
induced emf.
1. DC Generator (Dynamo and Magneto)
2. AC Generator (Alternator)

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 Generation of direct current
Direct current(DC):
It is the unidirectional flow of electric charge(current) which is
generated by sources like dynamo or dc generators, batteries, power
supplies, solar cells etc.

4
 Cont…
Construction of A DC Machine:
A DC generator can be used as a DC motor without any constructional
changes and vice versa is also possible. Hence a DC generator/DC
motor can be termed as a DC machine. The basic constructional
details are valid for both of them.

5
 Cont…
The dc generator essentially consists of an armature, a field frame,
field coils, and a commutator with brushes to establish electrical
contact with the rotating element. The magnetic field of the generator
usually is produced by the electromagnets or poles magnetized by
current flowing through the field coils. Although generators may be
designed to have any even number of poles, two-and four-pole frames
are the most common. Thus the armature must be constructed
according to the number of field poles because current is generated
when the coil (winding on the armature) moves across each magnetic
circuit.
The current is collected from the armature coils by brushes (usually
made of carbon) that make rubbing contact with a commutator.

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 Cont…
The commutator consists of a series of insulated copper segments
mounted on one end of the armature, each segment connecting to one
or more armature coils. The armature coils are connected to the
external circuits (battery, lights, or ignition) through the commutator
and brushes. Current induced in the armature coils thus is able to flow
to the external circuits.
The three basic design factors that determine generator output are
(1) the speed of armature rotation,
(2) the number of armature conductors, and
(3) the strength of the magnetic field.
Any of these design factors could be used to control the generator
voltage and current. However, the simplest method is to determine the
strength of the magnetic field and thus limit the voltage and current
output of the generator.
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 Cont…
DC generators can be classified in two main categories;
(i) Separately excited and (ii) Self-excited.
(i) Separately excited: In this type, field coils are energized from
an independent external DC source.
(ii) Self-excited: In this type, field coils are energized from the current
produced by the generator itself. Initial emf generation is due to
residual magnetism in field poles. The generated emf causes a
part of current to flow in the field coils, thus strengthening the
field flux and thereby increasing emf generation. Self excited dc
generators can further be divided into three types.
(a) Series wound - field winding in series with armature winding
(b) Shunt wound - field winding in parallel with armature
winding
(c) Compound wound - combination of series and shunt winding
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 SHUNT-WOUND GENERATOR
In this type of generator, the field winding is in parallel connected
with the armature winding. The generator will therefore build up its
own magnetism.
Characteristics of shunt generator:
1. No-load Saturation Characteristic (Eg/If):- It is also known as
Magnetic Characteristic or Open-circuit Characteristic (O.C.C. ).
2. Internal Characteristic (Eg/Ia):- It gives the relation between the
e.m.f. Eg actually induces in the armature (after allowing for the
demagnetizing effect of armature reaction) and the armature
current Ia.
3. External Characteristic (Vt/IL):- It gives relation between that
terminal voltage Vt and the load current IL. This curve lies below
the internal characteristic because it takes into account the voltage
drop over the armature circuit resistance.
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 Magnetization characteristic (O.C.C.)
It shows the relation between the no-load generated e.m.f. in armature,
Eg and the field or exciting current If at a given fixed speed.
‰‰The emf generated in the armature winding of a dc machine
under no load condition is given by;

P, Z and a are constants for a particular generator, hence at constant

given speed.
The generated emf is directly proportional to the flux per pole (speed
being constant), which in turns depends upon the field current If.

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 Cont…
‰‰‰The Ammeter indicate the field current and voltmeter indicate
the generated emf.
‰The field current is increased in steps from zero to maximum and
the corresponding value of If and Eg are noted down at each step.
‰On plotting these results the characteristic curve plotted between
generated emf Eg and the field current If at constant speed of rotation
is called the magnetization curve or O.C.C. of the dc generator

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 Cont…
It is observed that a small emf OA is generated by the generator, even
when the field current is zero. The reason for this generated emf is the
residual magnetism in the poles. This emf which is due to residual
magnetism is normally 1 to 5% of the normal voltage of the
generator.
‰This magnetization curve is of grate importance because it
represents the saturation level in the magnetic system of the dc
machine for various value of the excitation current If.

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 INTERNAL CHARACTERISTIC
When the generator is loaded, flux per pole is reduced due to armature
reaction. Therefore, e.m.f. Eg generated on load is less than the e.m.f.
generated at no load. As a result, the internal characteristic (Eg/Ia)
drops down slightly as shown in Figure below.

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 EXTERNAL CHARACTERISTICS
The external characteristics of a dc generator express the relationship
between the terminal voltage and the load current at a constant speed
and with the field current keeping the same as under the no load
condition.
‰The shape of this curve depends upon:
i. The armature reaction
ii. Voltage drop in the armature winding
iii. The drop in terminal voltage due to (i) and (ii) results in a
decreased field current which further reduces the induced emf.

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 Cont…
‰The voltage across the shunt field winding is equal to the terminal
voltage of the generator, the terminal voltage of the generator will fall
down due to the armature reaction and the ohmic drop in the armature
winding, as the load on the generator increases.
‰Thus the voltage across the field will not remain constant as the load
on the shunt generator increases.
‰The voltage across the field winding decreases with an increase in
the load current, which causes a decrease in the exciting current.
‰The terminal voltage further falls down incase of a shunt generator
because of decreases in excitation current as explained earlier with
increasing load current.
‰

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Cont…

16
Cont…

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 Cont…
Hence the total decreases in the voltage in case of shunt generators is
much greater than in separately excited generators.
‰Comparing these two curves for the same generator, it is observed
that with self-excitation the external characteristic is lower than that
obtained with separate excitation.
‰The basic reason for the difference in the two curves is that , in the
former case the shunt field current decreases with decreasing
terminal voltage, while in the case of separate excitation the field
current remains constant.
The no load voltage Eo of the generator represented by the upper
dotted line.

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 Armature reaction
In a DC machine(motor/generator), the main field is produced by field
coils. In both the generating and motoring modes, the armature carries
current and a magnetic field is established, which is called the
armature flux. The effect or reaction of armature flux on the
main field is called the armature reaction .The figure below shows
the main field flux being distorted by the armature flux.

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 REGULATION OF GENERATOR OUTPUT

The fields of the generator depend upon the current from the armature
of the generator for magnetization. Because the current developed by
the generator increases in direct proportion to its speed, the fields
become stronger as the speed increases and, correspondingly, the
armature generates more current. The extreme variations in speed of
the automotive engine make it necessary to regulate output of the
generator to prevent excessive current or voltage overload. On the
average a charging current in excess of 12 to 15 amperes is harmful to
a fully charged battery if continued for too long.

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 Cont…
To prevent the vehicle battery from being overcharged the regulated
system voltage should be kept below the gassing voltage of the lead-
acid battery. A figure of 14.2 ±0.2 V is used for all 12V charging
systems.
The output of an alternator without regulation would rise linearly in
proportion with engine speed.
Alternator output is also proportional to magnetic field strength and
this, in turn, is proportional to the field current.
Accurate voltage control is vital with the ever-increasing use of
electronic systems. It has also enabled the wider use of sealed
batteries, as the possibility of over-charging is minimal.

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 Cont…
Regulators are of two types, functioning to regulate either voltage or
current. The voltage regulator is an electromagnetic device regulates
the voltage in the electric system and prevents excessive voltage,
which can cause damage to the electric units and overcharge the
battery. The current regulator is a current limiter; it prevents the
generator output from increasing beyond the rated output of the
generator.
Regulation of voltage only might be satisfactory from the standpoint
of the battery; however, if the battery were badly discharged or if a
heavy electrical load were connected, the heavy current might
overload itself to supply the heavy current demand. Therefore, both
current and voltage controls are used in a charging system.
Also, if the generator weren't cutout from the car's circuitry when
not running, the battery would discharge through its case.
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 Cont…
Regulators have seen many design improvements over the decades,
but the most commonly used electro -mechanical regulator is the
three- control units in one box type.
In most applications, a regulator assembly consists of a cutout relay,
current regulator, and voltage regulator.
Either the current regulator or the voltage regulator may be operating
at any one time, but in no case do they both operate at the same time.

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 Voltage Regulator
Iron core-operated set of contact points is utilized to regulate
maximum and minimum voltage at all times. This circuit also has a
shunt circuit going to ground through a resistor and placed just
ahead (electrically) of the points. When the points are closed the
field circuit takes the "easy" route to ground but when the points are
open the field circuit must pass through the resistor to get to ground.

The field coil on the

generator is connected to one
of the voltage regulator
contact points. The other point
leads directly to ground.

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 Cont…
When the generator is operating (battery low or a number of
devices running) its voltage may stay below that for which the
control is set. Since the flow of current will be too weak to pull the
armature down the generator field will go to ground through the
points. However, if the system is fully charged the generator voltage
will increase until it reaches the maximum limit and current flow
through the shunt coil will be high enough to pull the armature
down and separate the points. Then the generator field will ground
through the path provided with the resistor.
This cycle is repeated over and over in real time. The points
open and close about 50 to 200 times per second, maintaining a
constant voltage in the system.

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 Current Regulator
Even though the generator's voltage is controlled it is possible for its
current to run too high. This would overheat the generator, so a current
regulator is incorporated to prevent premature failure.
Similar in appearance to the voltage regulator's iron core, the
current regulator's core is wound with a few turns of thick wire and
connected in series with the generator's armature.

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 Cont…
In operation, current flow increases to the predetermined setting of the
unit. At this time, current flow through the heavy wire windings
will cause the core to draw the armature up, opening the current
regulator points. In order to complete the circuit the field circuit must
pass through a resistor. This lowers current output, points close,
output increases, points open, output down, points close, and so
on. The points, therefore, vibrate open and closed as much as the
voltage regulator's points do, many times every second.

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 Cutout Relay
Sometimes called the circuit breaker, this device is a magnetic
"make - and-break" switch. It connects the generator to the battery
(and therefore the rest of the car) circuit when the generator's
voltage builds up to the desired value. It disconnects the generator
when it slows down or stops.
The relay has an iron core that is magnetized to pull down a hinged
armature. When the armature is pulled down a set of contact points
closes and the circuit is completed. When the magnetic field is
broken (like when the generator slows down or stops) a spring pulls
the armature up, breaking the contact points.

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 Cont…
An obvious failure mode is the contact points. As they open
and close, a slight spark is generated, eventually eroding the
material on the points until they either "weld" themselves together
or become so high in resistance that they won't conduct current when
closed. In the first case the battery would discharge through the
generator overnight and in the second there would be no charging to
the system.

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 Third brush regulation
A third-brush dynamo was a type of dynamo, an electrical generator,
formerly used for battery charging on motor vehicles. It was
superseded, first by a two-brush dynamo equipped with an external
voltage regulator, and later by an alternator. Third-brush regulation is
simpler in operation and cheap to manufacture than other methods of
control. However it can be used for some special and limited
applications.
Generators with this type of control have an additional brush
called the third brush which is located between the two main
brushes. In this system, the shift of the magnetic field by armature
reaction is made use of in controlling the output of generator.

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 Construction of Third Brush Regulation:
The field windings are not connected across the two main brushes but
instead they are connected across an auxiliary brush and one main
brush.
One end of the shunt field winding is connected to the third brush, the
other end is grounded. Only a part of the total voltage generated is
supplied to the field by the third brush.

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 Working Principle
(I). When the generator is running at a low speed and little or no
current is flowing in the armature winding, the magnetic field
produced by the field winding is approximately straight through
the armature from one pole piece to the other. The voltage
generated by each armature coil is then practically uniform during the
time the coil is under the pole pieces.

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 Cont…
(Fig. 2) As the generator speed and charging current increase, the
armature winding acts like a solenoid coil to produce a cross
magnetic field. The magnetic whirl around the armature winding
distorts the magnetic field produced by the shunt field winding, so that
the magnetism is not equally distributed under the pole pieces

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 Cont…
(2). With this distortion of the magnetic field, the armature coils no
longer generate a uniform voltage while passing under the different
parts of the pole. Although the voltage across the main brushes
remains nearly the same, a greater proportion of this voltage is
generated by the coils between the positive brush and the third
brush than was generated between them when little current was
flowing through the armature winding. This is due to the
distortion of the magnetic field which crowds more magnetic lines
of force between the positive and third brush.
(3) The coils which connect the commutator between the negative and
third brushes are in the region of the weakened field and generate a
lower proportion of the voltage. The result is a dropping of the voltage
between the negative and third brushes, which is applied to the shunt
field winding, thereby weakening the field strength. As the field
strength decreases with increased generator current, the result will be
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an automatic regulation of the current output.
 Output

(1) One of the outstanding characteristics of generators with third-

brush regulation is that the output of the generator increases
gradually up to an intermediate speed. After this, due to obvious
field distortion, the brush generator output falls off as the speed
continues to increase.
(2) In practically all generators that have third-brush provision is
made for changing the output to suit the conditions under which
the generator is operated. This can be done by moving the position
of the third brush on the commutator. The average voltage applied
to the field winding will depend upon the number of armature coils
spanned by the brushes that collect the field current.

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 Cont…

Thus, moving the third brush in the direction of the armature

rotation increases the average current delivered to the shunt-field
winding and, consequently, the output of the generator. Moving the
brush against the direction of armature rotation decreases the
output. When this brush is moved, care should be taken to see that it
makes perfect contact with the commutator.
(3). Because the third-brush generator depends upon the current
flowing through the armature winding to produce the field distortion
necessary for regulation, it is obvious that it is current-regulated
internally (as distinct from external current regulation). Therefore, it
must have a complete circuit available through the battery at all times.
Otherwise, regulation would be destroyed and excessive field currents
would burn out the generator windings.

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 Cont…
The maximum output of the generator is determined by the position of
the third brush.
 When it has reached its, maximum, the magnetic field produced by
the field windings becomes so weak that no further increase in
generator output is possible.
 If the generator speed is further increased, it produces additional
main field distortion and the generator output tapers off.
 By changing the position of the third-brush, the maximum o/p of
the generator of this type can be adjusted.
Limitations of Third Brush Regulation:
The third-brush dynamo had the advantage of simplicity but, by
modern standards, it gave poor voltage regulation. This led to short
battery life as a result of over-charging or under-charging

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 Cont…
 In the case of this system of regulating the o/p of the generator, the
battery state of charge has a prominent effect.
 The generator having this system of regulation will supply more
current to a fully charged battery than to a discharged battery.
 It is because a fully charged battery will have a higher terminal
voltage, thus providing a higher voltage to the field winding of the
generator.
 It causes an increase in the generator field strength and ultimately
leads to arise in voltage and output of the generator
 The discharged battery, similarly will result in a lower o/p of the
generator.
 This is certainly an undesirable thing, keeping in view the electrical
requirements of automobiles. It is, therefore, essential to have some
other means of regulating the generator output in addition to this
method. 38
 Compensated voltage regulator
 The core of the regulator is provided with three windings, namely,
series (current) coils A and B in which A is connected to the battery
& B to the lumps and coil C Voltage coil.
 The combined effect of theses three coils governs the movement of
the hinged armature in such way that it gives the desired regulator
action under different speed, load and battery conditions.

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Cont…

40
 Cont…
The figure below shows the curves of battery voltage and generator
current reflective the performance of the compensated voltage control
system.
 A,A1 and A2 corresponds to fully charged, almost discharged and
fully discharged battery.
 When the battery is fully charged, the generator supplies only a
small amount of charge.
 The charging rate increases as the battery is in lower state of
charge(A1 and A2 Curves)
 Hence the charging is automatically adjusted as per the state of
battery conditions.

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Cont…

42
Cont…

43
 Alternator
The alternator generates electrical power to run accessories and to
recharge the batteries in automobiles. It is normally driven by a belt
located off the crankshaft. Mechanical energy from the
crankshaft is converted by the alternator into electrical energy for the
batteries and accessories. This type of generator puts out AC voltage,
thus rectifier is required to convert it to DC current for an automobile
use.
The alternator contains three main components:
 Stator (attached to alternator housing, remains stationary),
Surrounding the rotor are more coils of laminated wire just
inside the alternator case.
 Rotor (spins inside the stator), rotating coil of laminated wire.
 Rectifier, This A/C current is rectified, turned into direct
current (D/C), by the diodes located within the alternator.
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 Cont…
When current is passed through the rotor via the slip rings and
brushes, the rotor becomes a rotating magnet having a magnetic
field. When a magnetic field passes through a conductor (the
stator), alternating current (A/C) is generated.
The alternator generates electricity through these steps:
 Engine power drives the alternator rotor through a pulley and drive
belt.
 The alternator rotor spins inside the windings of the stator.
 The stator windings generate an alternating current.
 Rectifier diodes change the alternating current (AC) into direct
current (DC).

45
 Cont…
The strength and polarity of the voltage is dependent on the direction
of rotation, the strength of the magnetic field, the number of
conductors and the speed of the rotor inside the stator.
Advantages of Alternators over DC generators:
 Has higher power to weight ratio.
 Does not require maintenance attention because of light slip rings.
 Simple in design and robust design when compared with dc
generator.
 High o/p at low engine speed can be obtained.
 Cutout relay is not necessary because rectifiers does not allow
reverse current to pass to alternator.

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 Bridge rectifier (Full-wave rectifier )
The bridge rectifier is an electronic circuit which converts AC voltage
in to pulsating DC using both half cycles of the applied AC voltages.
The input to this rectifier is a sine wave (AC source), due to the
bridge rectifier which is a full-wave rectifier we find that the output is
rectified out put for both +ve & -ve parts of the wave.
A four-diode bridge rectifier is used to full-wave rectify single phase
AC. A diode is often considered to be a one-way valve for electricity.
While this is a good analogy it is important to remember that while a
good quality diode will block reverse flow up to a pressure of about
400 V, it will still require a small voltage pressure of about 0.6 V to
conduct in the forward direction.

47
Cont…

48
 Cont…
As shown in the figure in this circuit four diodes D1, D2, D3and D4
are connected to form a network, two opposite ends A and C of the
network are connected to the ends S1and S2 of the secondary of the
power transformer T and the other two opposite ends B and D are
connected to the load resistance RL
During the half cycle of AC input voltage when the point A is positive
with respect to the point C, the diodes D2 and D4 are forward biased.
Consequently a current i1 flows through CBEFDAS1S2C. During this
time the diodes D1 and D3 are reversed biased.
Hence a current i2 flows in the direction during D2 and D4 are
reversed biased and so they are not conduct. In subsequent half cycles
of the AC input voltage the same process is repeated. Hence the
current flows through the load (E to F) in one direction only i.e. it is
unidirectional.
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 Cont…
It is evident that the diodes conduct in pairs and at instant the current
flows through two diodes, the load resistance and the secondary of the
transformer.
Under the action of sinusoidal AC voltage applied to the primary of the
transformer, the AC voltage across the secondary, which is applied to
the point A and C of the network is given by

Where 𝑉m is the maximum secondary voltage

The current pulses are represented by:

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Where Rf is the dynamic forward resistance of each diode.
 Cont…
For the Bridge Rectifier, the maximum current is given by:

The average DC current is given by:

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