1 DC Generator: Detailed Theory and Equations
1 Introduction
A direct-current (DC) generator converts mechanical power into DC electrical power
by electromagnetic induction. When conductors on the rotating armature cut magnetic flux
produced by the stator poles, an electromotive force (EMF) is induced (Faraday’s law). The
commutator–brush assembly rectifies the internally alternating EMF into an approximately
unidirectional terminal voltage.
2 Operating Principle
Faraday’s law for a single conductor gives the instantaneous induced EMF
= − = − (Φ ), (1)
where is flux linkage. For a conductor of active length moving with velocity in a
field of flux density and at right angles to ,
= . (2)
In a practical DC machine with many conductors and commutator segments, the average
generated EMF sums over conductors and is made unidirectional at the brushes.
3 Construction Overview
• Stator (magnetic field system): Yoke, poles, pole shoes, and field windings (or
permanent magnets).
• Rotor (armature): Laminated core with slots, armature windings, commutator
segments.
• Commutation system: Commutator and carbon brushes to mechanically rectify
the internal AC.
• Auxiliary poles (interpoles) and compensating windings: Improve
commutation and reduce armature reaction.
4 Generated EMF (Average) Equation
Let
= numberofpoles, Φ = fluxperpole(Wb), ! = totalarmatureconductors,
& = parallelpathsinarmature, ) = speed(rpm).
The average generated EMF at the brushes is
,-./
*+ = 01 2
(3)
Equivalently, in rad/s using a machine constant 34 ,
,. 67/
*+ = 34 Φ 5, 34 = 67 2 , 5 = 01
. (4)
Winding note.
For a lap winding, & = (many parallel paths ⇒ high current, low voltage). For a
wave winding, & = 2 (few parallel paths ⇒ higher voltage, lower current).
5 Terminal Voltage (Armature Circuit) Equation
Accounting for armature resistance :; and brush contact drop <= ,
< = *+ − >; :; − <= (5)
where < is the terminal voltage at brushes and >; the armature current. For approximate
work one may neglect <= (typically 12V per brush set in small/medium machines).
6 Power Balance and Efficiency
?@AB, = C5, (6)
AD E = *+ >; , (7)
6
AF,G = >; :; , (8)
ADH@ ≈ iron(hysteresis + eddy)losses, (9)
?@AB, DLL ≈ windage + friction, (10)
DFO = <>; , (11)
,QRS Z[\
P=, =] . (12)
TUVW,XY ^ [\ _,VQ`U _,TUVW,aQbb
Thus
DFO = *+ >; − >;6 :; − <= >; − ADH@ − ?@AB, DLL . (13)
7 Magnetization (Open-Circuit) Characteristic
At constant speed )1 , the open-circuit characteristic (OCC) is the nonlinear relation
between *+ and field current >c :
*+ = d/e (>c ), d′/e > 0, saturatingathigh>c . (14)
Due to residual magnetism, *+ is nonzero even at >c = 0.
8 Self-Excitation and Build-Up
In a self-excited shunt generator, the field winding (resistance :c ) is connected
across the armature terminals (< ≈ *+ during build-up). The condition for voltage build-up
is:
1. Presence of residual flux (ΦH@L ≠ 0) and correct field polarity so induced *+
reinforces Φ.
2. The field resistance line intersects the OCC in its rising region:
:c < :AH O AG ()) (15)
Here the critical field resistance :AH O AG is the maximum slope of *–>c from the
origin that still intersects the OCC. For a given :c , there is also a critical speed )AH O AG
(since *+ ∝ ) approximately in the unsaturated region):
) > )AH O AG forbuild − upatfixed:c . (16)
9 Armature Reaction and Voltage Drop
Under load, armature MMF distorts and weakens the main field, reducing Φ. A
simple first-order model is
Φ ≈ Φ1 − 3lm >; , (17)
so that the internal generated EMF becomes
,./
*+ ≈ (Φ1 − 3lm >; ), (18)
012
leading to a load-dependent terminal voltage droop via (5). Interpoles and compensating
windings counter this effect and improve commutation.
10 Regulation and Characteristics
Voltage Regulation
ZYQpaQqr sZtRaapaQqr
% Reg = × 100% (19)
ZtRaapaQqr
Characteristic Curves (at fixed speed)
• OCC: *+ vs >c at >; = 0 (nonlinear, saturating).
• Internal (no wx drop): *+ vs >; with field control to hold >c (shows effect of
armature reaction).
• External: < vs >; (includes :; and brush drop, commonly used for
regulation).
11 Types of DC Generators (Excitation)
Separately Excited
Field supplied by an external source; >c independent of >; . Terminal equation:
,-([y )./
<= 012
− >; :; − <= . (20)
Shunt (Self-Excited)
Field in parallel with the armature:
Z
>c = z , (21)
y
,-([y )./
<= 012
− >; :; − <= , >; = >c + > (22)
