Chapter 21:

Univariate Statistics
 UNIVARIATE STATISTICS

• Stating a Hypothesis
• What Is a Hypothesis?
• The Null Hypothesis and the Alternative Hypothesis
• Hypothesis Testing
• Hypothesis-Testing Procedure
• An Example of Hypothesis Testing
• Choosing the Appropriate Statistical Technique
• Type of Question to Be Answered
• Number of Variables
• Scale of Measurement
• Parametric Versus Nonparametric Hypothesis Tests
• t-Distribution
• Calculating a Confidence Interval Estimate Using the t-Distribution
• Univariate Hypothesis Test Using the t-Distribution
 Hypothesis Testing
• Types of Hypotheses
– Relational hypotheses
• Examine how changes in one variable vary with changes
in another.
– Hypotheses about differences between groups
• Examine how some variable varies from one group to
another.
– Hypotheses about differences from some standard
• Examine how some variable differs from some
preconceived standard. These tests typify univariate
statistical tests.
 Types of Statistical Analysis
• Univariate Statistical Analysis
– Tests of hypotheses involving only one variable.
– Testing of statistical significance
• Bivariate Statistical Analysis
– Tests of hypotheses involving two variables.
• Multivariate Statistical Analysis
– Statistical analysis involving three or more
variables or sets of variables.
 The Hypothesis-Testing Procedure
• Process
1. The specifically stated hypothesis is derived from the
research objectives.
2. A sample is obtained and the relevant variable is measured.
3. The measured sample value is compared to the value either
stated explicitly or implied in the hypothesis.
• If the value is consistent with the hypothesis, the
hypothesis is supported.
• If the value is not consistent with the hypothesis, the
hypothesis is not supported.
 Statistical Analysis: Key Terms

• Hypothesis
– Unproven proposition: a supposition that tentatively
explains certain facts or phenomena.
– An assumption about nature of the world.
• Null Hypothesis
– Statement about the status quo.
– No difference in sample and population.
• Alternative Hypothesis
– Statement that indicates the opposite of the null
hypothesis.
 Significance Levels and p-values
• Significance Level
– A critical probability associated with a statistical hypothesis test
that indicates how likely an inference supporting a difference
between an observed value and some statistical expectation is
true.
– The acceptable level of Type I error.
• p-value
– Probability value, or the observed or computed significance level.
• p-values are compared to significance levels to test
hypotheses.
• Higher p-values equal more support for an hypothesis.
p-Values and Statistical Tests
As the observed mean
gets further from the
standard (proposed
population mean), the p-
value decreases. The
lower the p-value, the
more confidence you
have that the sample
mean is different.
 An Example of Hypothesis Testing
• Customers were asked to indicate their perception of restaurant service
on scale 1-5;
1 indicates very unfriendly and 5 indicates very friendly.
• The scale is assumed to be an interval scale and previous distribution of
attitudinal measures approximate normal distribution.

• The researches entertains that the customers feel that the service at the
restaurant is neither friendly nor unfriendly;
The researcher hypothesize that the mean is equal to 3.

• Researcher needs to test this hypothesis (null hypothesis).

•Researcher needs to decide on the region of rejection; values that are
unlikely to occur if the null hypothesis is true.
•Researcher collected the data from a sample of 225 respondents and
calculated the mean (3.78) and the standard deviation (1.5);
A Hypothesis Test Using the Sampling—

Distribution of X under the Hypothesis

µ = 3.0
Critical Values
Values that lie exactly
on the boundary of
the region of
rejection.
 An Example of Hypothesis Testing
The null hypothesis: the mean is equal to 3.0:

The alternative hypothesis: the mean does not equal to 3.0:

An Example of Hypothesis Testing

Sample mean (3.78) is contained in

the level of rejection.

If the decision rule is formulated in terms of

the Z-statistics, Z value is highly significant
indicating a rejection of the Null Hypothesis.
Type I and Type II Errors in
Hypothesis Testing
 Choosing the Appropriate Statistical
Technique

• Choosing the correct statistical technique

requires considering:
– Type of question to be answered
– Number of variables involved
– Level of scale measurement
Univariate Statistical
Choice Made Easy
 The t-Distribution
• t-test • Degrees of freedom (d.f.)
– A hypothesis test that uses – The number of
the t-distribution.
observations minus the
– A univariate t-test is number of constraints or
appropriate when the
assumptions needed to
variable being analyzed is
calculate a statistical term.
interval or ratio.
The t-Distribution for Various Degrees of Freedom
Calculating a Confidence Interval
Estimate Using the t-Distribution
 Calculating a Confidence Interval
Estimate Using the t-Distribution (cont’d)

  X t c .l . S X X 3.89 S 2.81 n 18

Standard Error of the mean

2.81
3.89  2.12( ) 2.49
18

2.81
3.89  2.12( ) 5.28
18
 One-Tailed Univariate t-Tests

• One-tailed Test
– Appropriate when a research hypothesis implies that an
observed mean can only be greater than or less than a
hypothesized value.
• Only one of the “tails” of the bell-shaped normal curve is
relevant.
• A one-tailed test can be determined from a two-tailed test
result by taking half of the observed p-value.
• When there is any doubt about whether a one- or two-
tailed test is appropriate, opt for the less conservative
two-tailed test.
 Two-Tailed Univariate t-Tests

• Two-tailed Test
– Tests for differences from the population mean that are either
greater or less.
• Extreme values of the normal curve (or tails) on both the
right and the left are considered.
• When a research question does not specify whether a
difference should be greater than or less than, a two-tailed
test is most appropriate.
• When the researcher has any doubt about whether a one- or
two-tailed test is appropriate, he or she should opt for the
less conservative two-tailed test.
Univariate Hypothesis Test Utilizing
the t-Distribution
• Example:
– Suppose a Pizza Inn manager believes the
average number of returned pizzas each day to
be 20.
– The store records the number of defective
assemblies for each of the 25 days it was
opened in a given month.
– The mean was calculated to be 22, and the
standard deviation to be 5.
Univariate Hypothesis Test Utilizing
the t-Distribution: An Example
The sample mean is The sample mean is
equal to 20. equal not to 20.

H 0 :  20 H1 :  20

S X S / n 5 / 25 1
 Univariate Hypothesis Test Utilizing the t-
Distribution: An Example (cont’d)
• The researcher desired a 95 percent confidence; the
significance level becomes 0.05.
• The researcher must then find the upper and lower limits
of the confidence interval to determine the region of
rejection.
– Thus, the value of t is needed.
– For 24 degrees of freedom (n-1= 25-1),
the t-value is 2.064.
Univariate Hypothesis Test Utilizing the
t-Distribution: An Example (cont’d)

 5 
Lower limit =   t c .l . S X 20  2.064  17.936
 25 

 5 
Upper limit =   t c .l . S X 20  2.064  22.064
 25 
 Univariate Hypothesis Test Utilizing the
t-Distribution: An Example (cont’d)

Univariate Hypothesis Test t-Test

X  22  20 2
tobs    2
SX 1 1

This is less than the critical t-value of 2.064 at the 0.05

level with 24 degrees of freedom  hypothesis is not
supported.
 The Chi-Square Test for Goodness of
Fit
• Chi-square (χ2) test
– Tests for statistical significance.
– Is particularly appropriate for testing hypotheses about
frequencies arranged in a frequency or contingency
table.
• Goodness-of-Fit (GOF)
– A general term representing how well some computed
table or matrix of values matches some population or
predetermined table or matrix of the same size.
The Chi-Square Test for Goodness of
Fit: An Example
The Chi-Square Test for Goodness of
Fit: An Example (cont’d)
(Oi  Ei )²
 ² 
Ei
χ² = chi-square statistics
Oi = observed frequency in the ith cell
Ei = expected frequency on the ith cell
 Chi-Square Test: Estimation for
Expected Number for Each Cell
Ri C j
Eij 
n
Ri = total observed frequency in the ith row
Cj = total observed frequency in the jth column
n = sample size
 Hypothesis Test of a Proportion

• Hypothesis Test of a Proportion

– Is conceptually similar to the one used when the mean is the
characteristic of interest but that differs in the mathematical
formulation of the standard error of the proportion.

p 
Z obs 
Sp
π is the population proportion
p is the sample proportion
S is estimated with p