FLUID statICS

Hydrostatic pressure, pressure gauges,

Pascal’s law, Archimedes' theorem,
stability of immersed & floating bodies
 ASSUMPTIONS
• The fluids are incompressible: their
density does not change with
temperature and pressure.
– Liquids can be considered incompressible
– Gases are incompressible if the pressure
changes are very small
• The fluids are non-viscous: There is no
frictional forces between any segments
of a fluid moving with respect to one
another
 FLUIDS AT REST
• Density= Mass/ volume ρ= m/V
• Relative density= Density/mass/weight of
material
– ratio of the mass of any volume of a substance
to the mass of theDensity/mass/weight
same volume of water. of
water
• The heaviness of a substance compared to water.
– Used because mass measurement is more
accurate than volume measurement.
– It is unitless
– Also called specific gravity.
HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE
• The pressure exerted by a fluid in equilibrium
due to the force of gravity
• Units: P= F/A (N/m2 or Pascal, Pa)
– Sometime pressure is given in torrs (after Torricelli)
– Millimeters of mercury (mmHg): 1 torr= 1 mmHg
– Millibar (mb): 1 mb =100 Pa
– Atmosphere (atm): 1 atm = 1.013 x 105 Pa = 760
mmHg. This value is also refered to as the standard
pressure
• Isotropic, i.e. it acts with equal magnitude in all
directions.
 HYROSTATIC PRESURE
• The force exerted on any rigid surface by
a fluid at rest is always normal
(everywhere within the fluid) to that
surface.
• The equal and opposite force exerted by the
containing surface on the liquid would have a
component parallel to the surface which
would cause the fluid to flow.
• The fluid at rest in a container is in static
equilibrium under normal compressive forces
exerted by the walls of the container.
 Direction of fluid pressure on
boundaries

Furnace duct Pipe or tube

Heat exchanger

Dam
Pressure is not the same thing as force. Pressure acts
perpendicular (normal) to any surface, no matter how that surface
is oriented. Therefore pressure has no intrinsic (inherent/natural)
HYROSTATIC PRESURE: Properties
• The pressure is the same at all points on the
same horizontal plane within a fluid
– A horizontal pressure gradient would exist and
cause the fluid to flow if this were not the case.
• At any point or level in a stationery fluid the
pressure existing is the same in all directions.
– Any small element of fluid surrounding the point
would experience a resultant force and the fluid
would flow.
These apply to incompressible fluids (ρ doesn’t
vary with T and pressure)
 HYROSTATIC PRESURE
• Depends on
– the depth of the fluid,
– the density of the fluid
– the acceleration of gravity.
• Arises from the weight of the fluid and is
given by the expression:
Pstatic fluid = ρgh where
ρ = m/V = fluid density
g = acceleration of gravity
h = depth of fluid
 P at a Given Depth is Constant
At a given depth, pressure must be the
same. If it weren’t, the fluid would
have to be moving to the right, left, or
back & forth, which doesn’t happen
with a fluid in equilibrium. Imagine
submerging a container of water in the
If the prism
shape of a rectangular pressure at A
(a box).
were greater than at
A B B, then there would
be a net force on the
container to the
right, since the area
 Pressure: Depth vs Shape
All these containers are the same height.
Therefore, the pressure at the bottom of each is
the same. The shape matters not !

Note: We’re talking about the pressure of the fluid, not

the pressures exerted by the containers on the table,
which would greater for a cylinder than a cone of the
same height & base.
 Why Shape Doesn’t Affect Pressure
P at Y ˃ P at surface by an amount  g h,
where  is the density of the fluid. The same
is true for Q. Y and Z are at the same depth,
their pressures are the same. Therefore, if the
containers hold the same type of fluid, the
pressure at Z is the same as the pressure at
Q, even though the containers have different
A
shapes. We can repeat
W X this process several
times for an odd-shaped container: The
pressure difference from A to B depends only
onh their vertical separation.
h

Q Z Y B
HYROSTATIC PRESURE
 HYROSTATIC PRESURE
• P=ρgh applies only to homogeneous fluids
but it can be used successively if there are
several homogeneous layers of fluid
floating one above the other
• P= ρgh assumes that no external pressure
is exerted on the surface of the fluid. If it
exists e.g. atmospheric pressure, PA, then
P= PA + ρgh From this: ρgh = gauge
pressure
 EXAMPLE
• What pressure (due to water
only) will a swimmer 20m below
the surface of the ocean
experience? (Density of water
=1000kg/m3, g= 9.81m/s2)
FLUID STATICS

PRESSURE GAUGES
 Absolute and Gauge Pressure
• Absolute pressure: The pressure of a fluid is expressed
relative to that of vacuum (=0)

• Gauge pressure: Pressure expressed as the difference

between the pressure of the fluid and that of the surrounding
atmosphere.

 Usual pressure gauges record gauge pressure. To calculate

absolute pressure:

Pabs P0  Pgauge

 PRESSURE MEASUREMENT:
MANOMETERS
• measures unknown fluid pressure.
• A simple manometer consists of a U
shaped tube of glass filled with some
liquid usually mercury because of its
high density. It is connected to the
sample gas whose pressure has to be
determined.
 PRESSURE MEASUREMENT
U-shaped tube
filled with a liquid.
NB: when both
ends of the tube
are open to the
atmosphere, both
points A and B are
at atmospheric
pressure.
 PRESSURE MEASUREMENT:

MANOMETER
Sample at closed end.
 Other side open to
atmosphere. A at Patm.
 C at pressure of gas in the
closed end
 PB > Patm due to weight of
the column of liquid of
height h.
 C at same height as B, so
PB=PC.
 Psample> Patm by an amount
of pressure exerted by the
column of liquid of height h
Psample= Patm + ρgh
PRESSURE MEASUREMENT:
MANOMETER
• Sphygmomanometer is a blood-
pressure gauge:
– Uses a mercury-filled manometer
– Blood pressure varies with height: the
standard reference point is the upper
arm, level with the heart.
– BP readings e.g. 130/80 refer to the
maximum and minimum gauge pressures
in the arteries.
– Readings usually in mm Hg or torr.
PRESSURE MEASUREMENTs:
MANOMETER
• U-tube manometer can only be used
to measure moderate pressures, in
the region of atmospheric pressure.
• Bourdon gauge: measures pressures
of up to 2000 atm.
• Rotary vacuum pump: can measure
as low as 10-6 mb = 0.0001 Pa.
 PRESSURE MEASUREMENT: BAROMETER
C at Psample in closed end or
zero (vacuum).
B and A are at same
height,
PA= PB= Patm.
PB = PC + ρgh
• PC < Patm by ρgh
If vacuum at closed end
then
PC =0, so Patm= ρgh.
PC= PAtm - ρgh

eter has been used as a barometer to measur

 Mercury Barometer
This figure is a
common variation of
the Hg barometer.
Space above Hg
column in the long
glass tube is filled
with Hg vapor
(negligible vapor
pressure, PA =0)
PB = Patm = pgh
 PASCAL’S PRINCIPLE
• “A change in pressure
at any point in an
enclosed fluid at rest
is transmitted
undiminished to all
points in the fluid and
to the walls of the
container”
• Example application
is the hydraulic press:
A force of magnitude F1 is applied to a small
piston of surface area A1. The pressure is
transmitted through an incompressible liquid to
 PASCAL’S PRINCIPLE
• Because the pressure must be the
F1 F2 A2
same on both sides:
  F2  F1
A1 A2 A1

• This enables the achievement of large

output force from a small input force.
• Volume of fluid pushed down on one
A2 x1 WD on the input piston
A1side
x1  Aequals
2 x2 
the volume of fluid pushed
A  x = WD on output piston
up on the other side
1 2
i.e. There is energy
x1
F2  F1  F2 x2 F1x1 transfer into and out of
x2 the system, but these
energy transfers
 PRACTICE QUESTION
For the system shown below, the cylinder at L
has a mass of 600 kg and a cross-sectional area
of 0.08 m2. The piston on the right has a cross-
sectional area of 0.0025 m2 and a negligible
weight. The fluid in the apparatus is oil of
density 780 kg/m 3
. (g =10 m/s
1. Define hydrostatic pressure. [2]
2
).
2. Explain the three conditions that
must be met for a fluid to be at
rest. [9]
3. Find the force F required to hold
the system in equilibrium as
shown. [7]
4. State Pascal’s principle. [2]
5. A force of 50 N is applied to the
piston, find the force on the
cylinder, L. [5]
 How to
2.
– Find pressure exerted by cylinder
– equate it to pressure at H2
– pressure at H2 is due to column of fluid and F
– find F (31.5 N)
5.
A2
– Use F2  F1 to find force on cylinder (1600
A1
N)
 Archimedes’ Principle
“When a body is completely or partially
immersed in a fluid it experiences an upthrust
or apparent loss of weight, which is equal to the
weight of fluid displaced”
The submerged iron, wood, and vacuum have
the same volume. They displace the same
amount of fluid. Archimedes’ principle says that
the buoyant force on eachiron is the weight of the
wood vacuum
For the iron, mg > FB
fluid that would fit into thisFshape:
B FB FB
(if iron is denser than
the fluid), so it sinks.
For the wood, mg <
FB (if the fluid is mg
mg
denser than wood),
so it floats to the
 Buoyancy/Upthrust
• A body immersed in a fluid experiences a
vertical buoyant force equal to the weight
of the fluid it displaces: Archimedes’
principle
• A floating body displaces its Free
ownliquid surface
weight
F1
in
the fluid in which it floats:
h1 Principle of
The upper surface of
floatation (a is special case of Archimedes’
theprinciple).
body is
subjected to a
H
smaller force than
the lower surface h2

 A net force is F2
acting upwards NB: a floating body is partially immerse
 Buoyancy/ Upthrust
The net force due to pressure in the
vertical direction is:
FB (U)= F2- F1 = (Pbottom – Ptop)* (Area of the
body)

The pressure difference is:

Pbottom – Ptop = ρ g (h2-h1) = ρ g H
Combining:
FB = ρ g H A
 Example
• An empty spherical weather balloon with
a mass of 5kg has a radius of 2.879m
when fully inflated with helium. It is
supposed to carry a small load of
instruments having a mass of 10.0kg.
Taking air and helium to have densities
of 1.16kg/m3 and 0.160kg/m3
respectively, will the balloon get off the
ground? Acceleration due to gravity=
9.81 m/s2, Volume of a sphere=(4/3)∏r3
 Example
• For balloon to get off the ground, then
• upward force>downward force
• Downward forces: weight of balloon +
helium + load
• Upward forces : upthrust due to air
(fluid)
• Volume of fully inflated balloon:
V=(4/3)πr3 = 4/3 (π) (2.879m)3
V=99.957m3
 Example
• Mass of helium when balloon is fully
inflated:
• mHe =density x volume =
(0.16kg/m3)(99.957m3)= 15.993kg
• Total mass of the balloon system
• mbs= (5 +10 +15.993)= 30.993kg
• W = (30.993kg)(9.81m/s2)=
304.041N
 Example
• When fully inflated, the balloon will displace
an equal volume of fluid. V= 99.957m 3
• The air will provide an upthrust given by:
• U=pairgV = (1.16kg/m3)(9.81m/s2)(99.957m3)
• U=1,137.47N
• From this U>W, thus the balloon will get off
the ground.
• What will be its acceleration.
 FLUID STATICS

Stability of immersed &

floating body
 Stability of immersed &
floating body
• Apparent weight= W – W fluid displaced

• Objects that float are positively

buoyant.
• Objects that sink are negatively
buoyant.
• Object that neither float nor sink
are neutrally buoyant.
 Types of Equilibrium
• a body that’s been given a small angular
displacement and then released is said to be in:
– Stable equilibrium: the body returns to its
original position by retaining the originally vertical
axis as vertical.
– Unstable equilibrium: If the body does not return
to its original position but moves further from it.
– Neutral equilibrium: If the body neither returns
to its original position nor increases its
displacement further, it will simply adopt its new
position.
 Stability
• Centre of gravity (G): …
• Centre of buoyancy (B): centre of gravity
of displaced fluid through which upthrust
acts.
– depends on
• shape of the body and of the volume of fluid
• position in which it is floating.
• Stability of immersed and floating bodies
depend on the relative positions of G and
B.
 Stability: immersed body
• The type of equilibrium a body
experiences is determined by the couple
formed by its weight and the upthrust.
Generally:
– If the body’s G lies below the B, stable
equilibrium prevails.
– An overturning couple leading to unstable
equilibrium results if the G is above the B.
– If G and B coincide, neutral equilibrium
prevails.
 immersed body: Stable
equilibrium

If the body is tilted slightly in any direction, the

buoyant force and the weight always produce a
restoring couple trying to return the body to its
 immersed body: Unstable
equilibrium

Any disturbance from the equilibrium position

will create a destroying couple which will turn
 immersed body: Neutral
equilibrium

When G and B coincide, the body will always

assume the same position in which it is
 Stability: floating body
• If a body is disturbed by a small angle of
heel (an angular displacement about a
horizontal axis), B changes because the
shape of the displaced volume changes
– This change sets up a couple which tends
either to bring the object to its initial position
or to make it heel over more.
• Actually possible to have stable equilibrium
even if G is above B.
 Stability: floating body

NB: (a) NB: (b)

• FB = W • body has undergone a
small angular
• G above B in the
displacement θ with
same vertical line respect to the vertical
During the movement, the axis
volume immersed on the
RHS increases while that
• Gonremains
the LHS has decreases.
unchanged
 Stability: floating body
• The new line of action of the buoyant
force (which is always vertical) through B'
intersects the axis BG (the old vertical line
containing G and the old centre of buoyancy
B) at M.
• For small values of θ the point M is practically
constant in position and is known as
metacenter.
• For a floating body, the stability is determined
not simply by the relative position of B and G,
but rather by the relative position of M and G.
 Stability: floating body
• For the body shown in the Figure, M is
above G,
– a restoring couple acts on the body in its
displaced position which returns the body to its
original position.
– If M were below G, the couple would be an
overturning couple and the original equilibrium
would have been unstable.
– When M coincides with G, the body will assume
its new position without any further movement
and thus will be in neutral equilibrium.
 Stability: floating body
• Metacentric height (GM): distance of
metacentre above G along the line BG
GM =BM – BG
• Equilibrium conditions for a floating body
expressed in terms of metacentric height:
Stable equilibrium: GM > 0 (M is
above G)
Neutral equilibrium: GM = 0 (M
coinciding with G)
Unstable equilibrium: GM < 0 (M is
below G)
 HYDROMETER
 measures the specific • The operation is based
gravity (relative density) on the principle of
of liquids. flotation: a floating
 Made of glass and body displaces its own
consists of a cylindrical weight of fluid.
stem and a buoyancy • The lower the density
bulb loaded with mercury
of the substance, the
or lead shot to make it
float upright. further the hydrometer
 Usually contain a paper will sink
scale inside the stem, so • (Uses different scales of
the specific gravity can reading e.g. Twaddle,
be read directly. Plato, and Brix.)
 HYDROMETER
• S.G. is useful when dealing with liquids because it can
tell us how much material is dissolved in a mixture..
– In water specific gravity different from 1.0 indicates the
amount of dissolved matter
– A special hydrometer is used to analyze urine samples.
Normally the S.G. of urine is between 1.003 and 1.030.
diabetes mellitus and fever can be monitored by measuring
the S.G. of urine.
• High S.G. is seen when more water is retained by the body and
excessive solids are eliminated i.e. in the urine more solids are
mixed with water.
• Diuretics increase water elimination. Urine S.G. goes down when
more water is eliminated in this case solid concentration goes
down.
HYDROMETER
 HYDROMETER example
• A hydrometer floats in water of
density 1.0g/cm3 with 6.0cm of its
graduated stem above the water
level, and in oil of density 0.8g/cm3
with 4.0cm above the oil level.
Calculate the length of stem above
the liquid level when the hydrometer
placed in a liquid of density 0.9g/cm3.
 HYDROMETER example
• Because there is no vertical movement
(it’s floating) the downward force =
upward forces.
– weight of hydrometer = upthrust.
• Also from the principle of floatation: a
floating body displaces its own weight of
fluid.
– In whatever fluid the hydrometer floats, the
upthrust = weight of hydrometer. That is;
(mhydrometer).g =ρgV
 HYDROMETER example
m h g m w g  w gV m w g m o g
m h g m o g o gV  w gV  o gV
m h g m L g  L gV  w gV  L gV
If the length of the hydrometer is L and its
surface area is A, then the volume
submerged = A.Lsubmerged. The volume of
h g mw g 
fluidmdisplaced  w be
can L  0.06
gA(given bymarea
) times
the msubmerged
g m g length
 gA( Li.e.
 0A.L
.04m )
submerged
h o o

mh g mL g  L gA( L  x )
 HYDROMETER example
 w gA (L  0.06m) o gA (L  0.04m)
(1000)(10)(L  0.06) (800)(10)(L  0.04)
10000L  600 8000L  320
2000L 280
L 0.14m
 HYDROMETER example

 w gA( L  0.06m)  L gA( L  x )

(1000)(10)(0.14  0.06) (900)(10)(0.14  x )
800 1260  9000x
9000x 460
x 0.0511m 5.11cm.
 HYDROMETER examples
• A lactometer (or galactometer): test
creaminess of milk in addition to other factors.
• Alcoholometer : for determining the alcoholic
strength of liquids. Also known as a proof and
traille hydrometer.
• Saccharometer: for determining the amount of
sugar in a solution.
• Thermo hydrometer: Has a thermometer
enclosed in the float section. Measures the
density of petroleum products
 WORKED EXAMPLE
• A uniform rod which is held by two
strings is half submerged underneath
water surface and makes an angle of 60
with the water surface as shown in the
proceeding diagram. The center of
buoyancy is located at the center of the
submerged part. The mass, length, and
area of the rod are 0.5kg, 1.0m, 0.2cm 2
respectively. Find the tension in the
strings.
Upward forces downward forces
T1  T2  U mg 0.5 9.81 4.905N
Using archimede' s principle,
U volume submerged  g
U ( 2 10  4 m 2 )(0.5m) 1000kg / m 3 9.81m / s
U 0.981N
Taking moments about one of the edges
(1m)T1 cos 60  (0.75m) U cos 60 (0.5m)mg cos 60
Dividing through by cos 60 , we get
T1  0.75m 0.981N 4.905N 0.5m
T1 1.71675N
T1  T2  U 4.905N
T2 4.905N  1.717 N  0.981N 2.207 N