Badin institute of

nursing & allied

health sciences
SUBJECT: ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
TOPIC: CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
FACULTY: GHAZAL CHANDIO
Circulatory system

 The circulatory system is the body system responsible for the

transport of blood, nutrients, gases (like oxygen and carbon
dioxide), hormones, and waste products throughout the body. It
helps maintain homeostasis and supports the proper functioning of
organs and tissues.
 It consist on:
 Heart
 Blood vessels
heart

The heart is hollow muscular cone shaped organ.

The heart is a fist-sized organ that pumps blood
throughout the body.
The heart is located in the thoracic cavity,
specifically in the mediastinum, which is the
central compartment of the chest between
the lungs.
•)

Position of heart

 It lies behind the sternum between the

lung and in front of the vertebral column.
 It rests on the diaphragm.
 Positioned slightly to the left of the midline.
 About two- thirds of the heart lies on the left
side of the body and one-third on the right.
 The base of heart is above and apex below
 The heart is start from 2nd intercostal space
( between 2nd and 3rd ribs)
 It ends at 5th intercostal space
Structure of heart
Structure of heart

 Layers of the Heart Wall:

 Pericardium – Outer covering (protective sac):
 Fibrous pericardium: tough outer layer
 Serous pericardium: thin inner layer with fluid
to reduce friction
 Myocardium – Middle layer (thick muscular
layer that contracts to pump blood)
 Endocardium – Inner smooth layer
(lines the chambers and valves)
Functions of pericardium

 Protects the outer surface of the heart.

 Contains blood vessels, lymphatics, and nerves that supply the heart.
 Secretes lubricating fluid into the pericardial space to reduce friction during
heartbeats.
 Functions of myocardium
 Main pumping layer of the heart.
 Contracts to pump blood throughout the body.
 Stronger in the left ventricle because it pumps to the entire body.
 Contains specialized conducting cells (part of the electrical system).
Functions of endocardium

 Lines the inner chambers of the heart.

 Provides a smooth surface for blood flow, reducing friction.
 Protects the valves and inner surfaces.
 Helps prevent blood clots by producing anticoagulant substances.
Septum (Wall between
chambers):

 Interatrial Septum – Between right and left atria

 Interventricular Septum – Between right and left ventricle
 Chambers of heart

Lower
Upper Chambers
Chambers
(receive blood)
(pump blood)

Right Ventricle
Right Atrium (RA)
(RV)

Left Atrium (LA) Left Ventricle (LV)

Valves of heart

Valve Name Location Function

Prevents backflow into
Tricuspid Valve Between RA and RV
right atrium
Between RV and
Pulmonary Valve Controls flow to lungs
pulmonary artery
Prevents backflow into
Mitral (Bicuspid) Valve Between LA and LV
left atrium
Aortic Valve Between LV and aorta Controls flow to body
Major Blood Vessels Connected:

 Superior & Inferior Vena Cava –

Bring deoxygenated blood from
the body to the right atrium
 Pulmonary Arteries –
Carry deoxygenated blood from
RV to lungs
 Pulmonary Veins – Bring oxygenated
blood from lungs to LA
 Aorta – Carries oxygenated blood
from LV to body
Coronary artery

The coronary arteries are the blood

vessels that supply oxygen-rich blood
to the heart muscle (myocardium) itself.
 Types of Coronary Arteries:
 1. Left Coronary Artery (LCA)
 Arises from the aorta
 Quickly branches into two main arteries:
 Left Anterior Descending (LAD) artery:
Supplies the front of the left side of the heart
 Left Circumflex artery (LCx):
Supplies the side and back of the left side of the heart
Coronary artery

 . Right Coronary Artery (RCA)

 Supplies blood to:
 Right atrium
 Right ventricle
 Part of the left ventricle
 SA node (in many people — the pacemaker of the heart)
Simple Summary Table

Artery Main Area Supplied

Left Anterior Descending (LAD) Front of the left side of the heart
Side and back of the left side of the
Left Circumflex (LCx)
heart
Right side of heart and part of the
Right Coronary Artery (RCA)
left
Clinical Importance:

 Blockage in coronary arteries leads to:

 Angina (chest pain)
 Myocardial infarction (heart attack)
 Treated with:
 Medications
 Angioplasty
 Coronary artery bypass surgery (CABG)
Surfaces of the Heart

Surface Description
Faces forward, behind the sternum
and ribs
Anterior (Sternocostal) Surface Mostly formed by right ventricle
and partly by right atrium and left
ventricle
Rests on the diaphragm
Inferior (Diaphragmatic) Surface Formed mostly by left ventricle
and partly by right ventricle
Faces left lung
Left Pulmonary Surface
Formed mostly by left ventricle
Faces right lung
Right Pulmonary Surface
Formed by right atrium
Systemic circulation

Step Function
Left Ventricle Pumps oxygenated blood into aorta
Aorta Distributes blood to body organs
Capillaries Exchange gases and nutrients
Veins Return deoxygenated blood
Vena Cava → Right Atrium Completes the systemic circulation
circulation
Pulmonary circulation

Step Function
Right Ventricle Pumps deoxygenated blood to lungs
Pulmonary Arteries Carry blood to lungs
Lungs Exchange of O₂ and CO₂
Return oxygenated blood to the
Pulmonary Veins
heart
Receives oxygen-rich blood for body
Left Atrium
use
Coronary circulation

 Aorta
 Blood is pumped from the left ventricle into the aorta.
 The first branches of the aorta are the right and left coronary arteries.
 Coronary Arteries
 These arteries supply oxygenated blood to the heart muscle.
 Left Coronary Artery (LCA)
 Branches into:
 Left Anterior Descending (LAD) artery – supplies the front of the left heart
 Left Circumflex (LCx) artery – supplies the side and back of the heart
continue

 Right Coronary Artery (RCA)

 Supplies:
 Right atrium
 Right ventricle
 Bottom part of both ventricles
 SA node
 Capillaries in Myocardium
 Gas exchange occurs here
 Oxygen and nutrients go to the heart cells
 Carbon dioxide and waste are collected
continue

 Cardiac Veins (Deoxygenated Blood Returns)

 Great cardiac vein, middle cardiac vein, small cardiac vein, etc.
 Collect deoxygenated blood from the heart tissue
 Coronary Sinus
 All cardiac veins drain into the coronary sinus, a large vein on the
back of the heart.
 Right Atrium
 The coronary sinus empties into the right atrium, completing the
circulation.
Borders of the Heart:

Border Formed by Description

Vertical, along the right
Right Border Right atrium
side of sternum
Left ventricle and Curved, faces the left
Left Border
part of left atrium lung
Right ventricle and a Rests on the diaphragm
Inferior Border
bit of left ventricle (lower edge)
Both atria and great
Upper edge near base
Superior Border vessels (aorta,
of heart
pulmonary trunk)
Borders of heart
Conduction system
Conduction system

 The conduction system of the heart is

a specialized network of cells that
generate and transmit electrical impulses,
making the heart beat in a coordinated
and rhythmic way.
 . SA Node (Sinoatrial Node) – "Natural Pacemaker"
 Location: Upper wall of the right atrium
 Function:
 Starts the heartbeat by generating electrical impulses.
 Sets the heart rate (normally 60–100 beats per minute).
 Spreads the impulse across both atria → causes atrial contraction.
Conduction system

 AV Node (Atrioventricular Node)

 Location: Between the atria and ventricles
 Function:
 Receives impulses from the atria.
 Delays the signal briefly to allow the atria to fully contract and fill the ventricles.
 Then sends the impulse to the ventricles.
 Bundle of His (AV Bundle)
 Location: Upper part of the interventricular septum
 Function:
 Carries the impulse from AV node down the septum.
 Divides into right and left bundle branches.
Conduction system

 Right and Left Bundle Branches

 Location: Along the sides of the interventricular septum
 Function:
 Conduct electrical impulses to the right and left ventricles.
 Purkinje Fibers
 Location: Spread throughout the walls of the ventricles
 Function:
 Distribute the impulse throughout the ventricles.
 Cause ventricular contraction (pumping blood out).
Cardiac cycle

 The cardiac cycle is the sequence of events that occur in the heart
during one complete heartbeat. It includes all the mechanical and
electrical events involved in pumping blood through the heart and to
the body. The cycle lasts about 0.8 seconds in a healthy adult at rest.
 Phases of the Cardiac Cycle
 The cardiac cycle consists of two main phases:
 Diastole (Relaxation phase)
 Systole (Contraction phase)
Step-by-Step Description of the
Cardiac Cycle

 . Atrial Systole (0.1 sec)

 The atria contract.
 Blood is pushed from the atria into the relaxed ventricles.
 The AV (atrioventricular) valves (tricuspid and mitral) are open.
 The semilunar valves (pulmonary and aortic) are closed.
 Ventricular Systole (0.3 sec)
 The ventricles contract.
 This closes the AV valves to prevent backflow into the atria.
 Pressure builds and semilunar valves open, pushing blood:
 Right ventricle → pulmonary artery → lungs
 Left ventricle → aorta → body
Step-by-Step Description of the
Cardiac Cycle

 Diastole (0.4 sec)

 Both atria and ventricles relax.
 Semilunar valves close to prevent backflow.
 AV valves open.
 Blood from veins (vena cava and pulmonary veins) starts filling the
atria, and passively enters ventricles.
Heart sound
Importance of cardiac cycle

 The cardiac cycle ensures:

 Proper blood flow from the heart to the lungs and body.
 Efficient oxygen delivery and waste removal.
 Coordination of contraction and relaxation for effective pumping.
Normal Heart Sounds (S1 & S2):

 S1 – “Lub”
 Cause: Closure of the atrioventricular (AV) valves (mitral and tricuspid valves)
 Timing: Occurs at the beginning of systole (when ventricles contract)
 Location best heard: Apex of the heart (5th intercostal space, midclavicular line)
 S2 – “Dub”
 Cause: Closure of the semilunar valves (aortic and pulmonary valves)
 Timing: Occurs at the end of systole (when ventricles relax)
 Location best heard: Base of the heart (2nd intercostal space, right and left
sternal border)
Extra Heart Sounds (S3 & S4):

 S3 – Ventricular Gallop
 Heard after S2
 Associated with rapid ventricular filling
 Normal in children and athletes, but in adults may indicate heart
failure
 S4 – Atrial Gallop
 Heard before S1
 Caused by atrial contraction forcing blood into a stiff ventricle
 May be heard in hypertension, aortic stenosis, or left ventricular
hypertrophy
Terms used in cardiac cycle

 End diastolic volume: amount of blood in each ventricle at the end of

diasytole.
 End systolic volume: volume of blood in each ventricle at the end of
systole.
 Stroke volume: the amount of blood pumped by each ventricle per
beat.
 Stroke Volume (SV)=Cardiac Output (CO)÷Heart Rate
Terms used in cardiac cycle

 Cardiac Output (CO) is the total volume of blood pumped by the

heart (specifically the left ventricle) into the aorta per minute.
 Formula:
 CO=Stroke Volume (SV)×Heart Rate (HR)
 Normal Range:
 4 to 8 liters per minute (in a healthy adult at rest)
 Heart Rate (HR) = number of heartbeats per minute (bpm)
Terms used in cardiac cycle

 MAP (Mean Arterial Pressure):

 Mean Arterial Pressure (MAP) is the average pressure in a
person's arteries during one complete cardiac cycle (one heartbeat —
including both systole and diastole).
 MAP Formula (using systolic & diastolic pressure):
 MAP=Diastolic BP+1/3(Systolic BP−Diastolic BP)
Step 1: Identify Systolic and Diastolic BP
 Systolic BP (SBP) = 120 mmHg
 Diastolic BP (DBP) = 80 mmHg
continue

 ​Step 2: Subtract Diastolic from Systolic

 SBP−DBP=120−80=40
 Step 3: Take 1/3 of the Difference
 40/3=13.3
 Step 4: Add the Result to Diastolic BP
 MAP=DBP+13.3=80+13.3=93.3 mmHg
 MAP=80+1/3​(120−80)=80+1/3(40)=80+13.3=93.3 mmHg
Ecg (electrocardiogram)

 An ECG records the electrical activity

of the heart during each cardiac cycle.
A normal ECG has the following main waves:
 P Wave
 What it shows: Atrial depolarization
(electrical signal spreads across the atria).
 Physiology:
 SA node fires → right and left atria contract.
 Normal duration: ~0.08–0.10 seconds
 Shape: Small, rounded, and positive (upward in most leads)
Ecg (electrocardiogram)

 PR Interval
 What it shows: Time taken for the
electrical impulse to travel from the
atria to the ventricles.
 Includes: P wave + delay at the AV node.
 Normal duration: 0.12–0.20 seconds
 Physiology: Ensures ventricles have time
to fill with blood before contraction.
Ecg (electrocardiogram)

 QRS Complex
 What it shows: Ventricular depolarization
(electrical signal through ventricles).
 Physiology:
 Signal moves from AV node → Bundle of His
→ Purkinje fibers → Ventricular muscle contraction.
 Normal duration: 0.06–0.10 seconds
 Note: Atrial repolarization also happens here
, but it's hidden in the QRS wave.
Ecg (electrocardiogram)

 ST Segment
 What it shows: Time between the end of
ventricular
depolarization and the beginning
of repolarization.
 Physiology: Ventricles are fully depolarized and
beginning to relax.
 Normal: Flat (isoelectric); elevation or depression may
indicate heart damage
(e.g., myocardial infarction).
Ecg (electrocardiogram)

 T Wave
 What it shows: Ventricular repolarization
(recovery phase).
 Physiology:
 Ventricles relax and prepare for
next contraction.
 Shape: Upright and slightly asymmetrical.
 Abnormalities: Tall, peaked, or inverted
T waves may indicate potassium imbalance
or ischemia.
Ecg (electrocardiogram)

 QT Interval
 What it shows: Time from beginning of
ventricular depolarization to the end
of repolarization.
 Physiology: Complete electrical activity
of ventricles (contract + relax).
 Normal duration: Varies with heart rate
; about 0.35–0.44 seconds.
 Prolonged QT: Risk of arrhythmias
(dangerous irregular heart rhythms).
Blood pressure mechanism

 Blood Pressure (BP) is the force that blood exerts on the walls of
arteries as the heart pumps it through the body. It is measured in
mmHg and recorded as systolic / diastolic (e.g., 120/80 mmHg).
Mechanism of Blood Pressure
Regulation

 Mechanism of Blood Pressure Regulation

 1. Heart Pumping (Cardiac Output)
 Blood pressure increases with:
 Increased heart rate (HR)
 Increased stroke volume (SV) (amount of blood pumped per beat)
 Cardiac Output (CO) = HR × SV
➤ More cardiac output = higher blood pressure
Mechanism of Blood Pressure
Regulation

 Peripheral Resistance
 Narrower (constricted) blood vessels = higher resistance = higher BP
 Wider (dilated) vessels = lower resistance = lower BP
 Autonomic Nervous System
 Sympathetic Nervous System (SNS):
 Increases BP by increasing heart rate and constricting vessels
 Parasympathetic Nervous System (PNS):
 Decreases BP by slowing heart rate
Mechanism of Blood Pressure
Regulation

 Baroreceptors (Pressure Sensors)

 Located in aortic arch & carotid arteries
 Detect BP changes and send signals to brainstem:
 If BP is high, they cause vasodilation and slow heart rate
 If BP is low, they cause vasoconstriction and increase heart rate
Mechanism of Blood Pressure
Regulation

 Hormonal Control
 Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System (RAAS):
 Kidneys release renin → converts angiotensinogen to angiotensin I
 Angiotensin I → converted to angiotensin II (powerful vasoconstrictor)
 Angiotensin II stimulates aldosterone, which retains salt and water → raises
BP
 Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH):
 From pituitary gland; retains water in kidneys → increases blood volume & BP
Mechanism of Blood Pressure
Regulation

 Blood Volume
 More blood volume (due to fluid/salt retention) = higher BP
 Less blood volume (due to dehydration/bleeding) = lower BP
Mechanism of Blood Pressure
Regulation

Factor Effect on BP
↑ Heart Rate / Stroke Volume ↑ BP
Vasoconstriction ↑ BP
Vasodilation ↓ BP
↑ Blood Volume ↑ BP
RAAS Activation ↑ BP
ADH Secretion ↑ BP
Baroreceptor Response Regulates BP based on feedback
Stroke volume

 The amount of blood pumped by the left ventricle of the heart in one
contraction.“
 Unit: milliliters (ml)
 Normal range: 60–100 ml per beat in a healthy adult
 Measured during: systole (the contraction phase of the heart)
Stroke volume and heart rate

 Stroke Volume (SV)

 Definition:
The amount of blood ejected by one ventricle in one heartbeat.
 Normal value:
~60–100 mL/beat
 Heart Rate (HR)
 Definition:
The number of heartbeats per minute.
 Normal value:
~60–100 beats/min
Cardiac out put

 Cardiac Output (CO)

 Definition:
The total amount of blood pumped by the heart per minute.
 Formula:
📌 CO = Stroke Volume × Heart Rate
📝 CO = SV × HR
 Example:
If SV = 70 mL/beat and HR = 75 beats/min
→ CO = 70 × 75 = 5,250 mL/min or 5.25 L/min
 Normal value:
~4–8 L/min
MAP(mean arterial pressure)

 MAP (Mean Arterial Pressure)

 Definition:
The average pressure in the arteries during one cardiac cycle. It’s
important to know how well blood is flowing to the organs.
 Formula:
📌 MAP = (SBP + 2 × DBP) ÷ 3
Where:
 SBP = Systolic BP (e.g. 120)
 DBP = Diastolic BP (e.g. 80)
continue

 Example:
MAP = (120 + 2×80) ÷ 3 = (120 + 160) ÷ 3 = 280 ÷ 3 = ~93 mmHg
 Normal MAP:
~70–100 mmHg
(>60 mmHg is required to perfuse vital organs)
summary

term Full Form Normal Value Formula

SV Stroke Volume 60–100 mL/beat —

60–100
HR Heart Rate —
beats/min

CO Cardiac Output 4–8 L/min CO = SV × HR

Mean Arterial MAP = (SBP +

MAP 70–100 mmHg
Pressure 2×DBP) ÷ 3
Lymphatic system

 The lymphatic system is a network of vessels, tissues, and organs that

works together to maintain fluid balance in the body and play
a crucial role in immune defense.
 It is a part of circulatory system and immune system.
 Components of lymphatic system
1) Lymph
2) Lymphatic vessels
3) Lymph nodes
4) Thymus
5) Spleen
6) Tonsils
7) Bone marrow
Functions of the Lymphatic
System

 Fluid Balance: Collects excess tissue fluid (lymph) from body tissues
and returns it to the bloodstream, preventing edema (swelling).
 Fat Absorption: Absorbs fats and fat-soluble vitamins from the digestive
system through specialized lymph vessels called lacteals in the small
intestine.
 Immune Defense: Filters harmful substances like bacteria, viruses, and
cancer cells through lymph nodes.
 Produces and circulates lymphocytes (white blood cells) to fight
infections.
 Transport of White Blood Cells: Transports B cells and T cells to and
from lymph nodes, supporting immune responses.
lymph

 Lymph is a clear, colorless fluid that circulates through the lymphatic system. It originates
from interstitial fluid—the fluid that surrounds the body’s tissues and cells.
 Composition of lymph

1) Water
2) Proteins (small amounts)
3) White blood cells (mainly lymphocytes)
4) Electrolytes (Na⁺, K⁺, Ca²⁺, Cl⁻, etc.)
5) Lipids (fats, especially chyle from intestines)
6) Cell debris and metabolic waste
7) Hormones
8) Enzymes
Lymphatic vessels and lymph
Lymphatic vessels

 Lymphatic vessels are thin-walled

tubes that form a network throughout
the body to transport lymph.
 Key Characteristics:
 Similar in structure to veins but thinner
and with more valves.
 Carry lymph from tissues to lymph
nodes and eventually to the bloodstream.
•Begin as blind-ended capillaries in tissues and merge into larger vessels.
•Valves prevent backflow and ensure one-way movement of lymph.
•Help in removing excess fluid, waste, and pathogens from tissues
Lymph nodes

 Lymph nodes are small, bean-shaped structures found along lymphatic vessels. They act
as filters for lymph, helping to trap and destroy harmful substances like bacteria, viruses,
and cancer cells.
 Key Features:
 Size: Usually 1–2 cm in diameter.
 Location: Found in clusters in areas like the neck, armpits, chest, abdomen, and groin.
 Function:
 Filter lymph fluid.
 Activate immune response by producing lymphocytes.
 Trap and destroy pathogens before they reach the bloodstream.
Sturucture of lymph node

 Capsule: Outer covering of dense connective tissue.

Encloses and protects the lymph node.
 Trabeculae: Inward extensions of the capsule.
Divide the node into compartments and provide support.
 Cortex (Outer Region):Contains lymphatic nodules (follicles).

 Germinal centers in follicles have B cells that produce antibodies.

 Cortex is rich in B lymphocytes.
continue

Paracortex (Deep Cortex): Lies between cortex and medulla.

Rich in T lymphocytes. Site where T-cell activation occurs.
Medulla (Inner Region): contains medullary cords (B cells,
plasma cells, macrophages. Medullary sinuses allow lymph
to flow through.
 . Afferent Lymphatic Vessels: Enter the node on the
convex side. Bring unfiltered lymph into the node.
continue

 Subscapular Sinus: Space just under the capsule where

lymph first enters. Begins the filtration process.
 Efferent Lymphatic Vessel: Exits at the hilum (indented
side). Carries filtered lymph away from the node.
 Hilum:
 Indentation where blood vessels and efferent lymphatic
vessel exit.
Tonsils:

 Tonsils are small masses of lymphoid tissue located at

the back of the throat. They are part of the body’s first
line of defense against pathogens that enter through the
mouth or nose.
Palatine tonsils

•Location:
•On both sides at the back of the mouth (in the throat area).
•Shape:
•Oval (egg-shaped) and soft.
•Covering: Covered by the same type of skin as the mouth (called
squamous epithelium).
 Crypts (holes):
 Have 10–20 small pits or holes called crypts that trap germs
•Inside: Filled with lymphoid tissue (helps fight infection).
continue

 Capsule: Covered on the outer side by a thin layer called a capsule.

 Blood Supply: Gets blood mainly from the facial artery.
 Nerves: Connected to the glossopharyngeal nerve, which is why
throat pain can go to the ear
 Lymph Drainage: Germs from the tonsils go to the neck lymph nodes
(especially the jugulodigastric node).
 Part of Defense System: Works as part of Waldeyer’s ring, which
protects the body from infections entering through the mouth or nose.
Pharyngeal tonsils

•Location:
•Found high up on the back wall of the nasopharynx (behind the nose, above the throat).
•Shape:
•Single mass (not paired like palatine tonsils) and irregular in shape.
•Surface:
•Surface is folded but does not have crypts like palatine tonsils.
•Epithelium (covering):
•Covered by pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium (same as the lining of the nasal cavity).
continue

•Lymphoid Tissue:
•Contains lymphoid follicles that help fight infections.
•No Capsule:
•It is not covered by a capsule like the palatine tonsils.
•Part of Waldeyer’s Ring:
•Forms the upper part of Waldeyer’s ring (immune defense system at the entrance of the throat).
•Common in Children:
•Usually larger in children and may shrink with age.
•Can become swollen (called adenoids) and cause breathing or ear problems.
Lingual tonsils

 Lingual Tonsils
 Located at the base of the tongue.
 Covered by stratified squamous epithelium.
 Have small crypts.
 Not encapsulated.
 Common Structural Features:
 Lymphoid follicles with germinal centers.
 Contain B cells, T cells, and macrophages.
 Play a role in immune defense by detecting pathogens entering through the
mouth and nose.
Functions:

•Trap and destroy bacteria and viruses entering

through the oral or nasal cavity.
•Produce lymphocytes and antibodies to fight
infection.
•Help in developing immunity, especially during
childhood.
.

thymus

 The thymus is a soft,

pinkish-gray organ located
in the upper chest, just
behind the sternum
(breastbone) and in front
of the heart.
continue

 Medulla (Inner Region of Lobule):

Lighter-stained center.
 Contains more mature T cells,
fewer lymphocytes, and
Hassall's
corpuscles (unique to the thymus).
continue

 Hassall’s Corpuscles:
Round, whorled structures found
only in
the medulla.
 Their exact function is not fully understood
but may help regulate T-cell
development.
 Blood–Thymus Barrier: Present in the cortex.
 Protects developing T cells from exposure to
antigens in the blood.
Functions of Thymus

•Maturation of T-lymphocytes (T-cells)

•Differentiation of functional immune T-cells
•Elimination of self-reactive T-cells (prevents autoimmunity)
•Secretion of thymic hormones (e.g., thymosin)
•Supports adaptive immune response
•Most active during childhood
•Undergoes involution after puberty
spleen

 Largest lymphatic organ in the body

 Length 12cm.
 Width 7cm
 Thick 2.5cm weight 200g
 Located in the left upper quadrant of the abdomen,
behind the stomach.
 Enclosed in a fibrous capsule
 Composed of white pulp and red pulp
 It is a soft, highly vascular organ
 In fetus, it helps in blood cell formation (hematopoiesis)
Structure of spleen

Component Function
White pulp Immune defense (lymphocytes)
Filter blood, destroy RBCs, store
Red pulp
platelets
Capsule Protects spleen, gives shape
Trabeculae Internal framework
Connects to blood and lymph
Hilum
vessels
functions

•Filters blood – Removes old or damaged red blood cells.

•Fights infection – Produces and stores white blood cells
• (especially lymphocytes) that help fight bacteria and viruses.
•Stores blood – Acts as a reservoir for blood in case of emergencies.
•Removes debris – Clears out cellular waste and foreign substance s.
Bone marrow

 Bone marrow is the soft, spongy tissue found inside

bones, especially in the hip, spine, and long bones like
the femur.
 Types:
 Red bone marrow – Active in blood cell production.
 Yellow bone marrow – Mainly made of fat cells; can
convert to red marrow if needed.
Role of Bone Marrow in the
Lymphatic System:
functions

 Production of Lymphocytes: Bone marrow produces B

lymphocytes (B cells) and precursor T lymphocytes (T
cells) which are essential for immune defense.
 Maturation of B cells: B cells mature in the bone
marrow and become capable of producing antibodies.
continue

 Hematopoiesis (Blood Cell Formation):

 Immune Response Activation: Bone marrow helps initiate
immune responses by supplying mature B cells to
secondary lymphatic organs (e.g., lymph nodes, spleen).
 Stem Cell Reservoir: It contains hematopoietic stem cells
that can differentiate into various immune cells when
needed.
Common disorders of circulatory
system
1. Atherosclerosis
2. Coronary Artery Disease (CAD)
3. Heart Attack (Myocardial Infarction)
4. Hypertension
5. Stroke
6. Heart Failure
7. Arrhythmias
8. Varicose Veins
9. Deep Vein Thrombosis (DVT)
10. Anemia
11. Peripheral Artery Disease (PAD)
12. Aneurysm