Module4

PLANAR GRAPHS

 A graph G is said to be planar if there exists some geometric

representation of G which can be drawn on a plane such that no two
of its edges intersect
 A graph that cannot be drawn on a plane without a crossover
between its edges is called nonplanar.
 A drawing of a geometric representation of a graph on any surface
such that no edges intersect is called embedding.
 An embedding of a planar graph G on a plane is called a plane
representation of G
consider

The geometric representation is clearly is not embedded in a plane, because the edges e
and f are intersecting. But if we redraw edge f outside the quadrilateral, leaving the
other edges unchanged, we have embedded the new geometric graph in the plane, thus
showing that the graph which is being represented is planar.
Example 2:Non planar graph
KURATOWSKI’S TWO GRAPHS

THEOREM: ❑ The complete graph with 5 vertices (K5) is non planar

 Now we need V1to be connected to V3 & V4. V1 can be connected to V3
along an edge inside the pentagon. Similarly V1 can be connected to
V4 also, inside the pentagon
THEOREM 5-2 Kuratowski’s second
graph is also nonplanar
 You may have noticed several properties common to the two graphs
of Kuratowski. These are
 1. Both are regular graphs.
 2. Both are nonplanar
 3. Removal of one edge or a vertex makes each a planar graph.
 4. Kuratowski’s first graph is the nonplanar graph with the smallest
number of vertices, and Kuratowski’s second graph is the nonplanar
graph with the smallest number of edges. Thus both are the simplest
nonplanar graphs.
 Kuratowski’s first graph is usually denoted by K5 and the second
graph by K3.3—letter K being for Kuratowski.
DIFFERENT REPRESENTATIONS OF A
PLANAR
GRAPH
1.Straight line representation
THEOREM 5-3
Any simple planar graph can be embedded in a plane such that every edge is
drawn as a straight line segment.
 It is necessary for the graph to be simple because a self-loop or
one of two parallel edges cannot be drawn by a straight line segment
2.Plane representation

Region:A plane representation of a graph divides

the plane into regions (also called windows,
faces, or meshes),

Plane representation (the numbers stand for regions).

 A region is characterized by the set of edges (or the set of vertices)
forming its boundary.
 Note that a region is not defined in a non planar graph or even in a
planar graph not embedded in a plane.eg…. the geometric graph
below does not have regions..
 Infinite Region: The portion of the plane lying outside a graph embedded in
a plane, such as region 4 in below is infinite in its extent.
 Such a region is called the infinite, unbounded, outer, or exterior
region for that particular plane representation.
 Like other regions, the infinite region is also characterized by a set of
edges (or vertices).
Embedding on a Sphere:

 To eliminate the distinction between finite and infinite regions, a

planar graph is often embedded in the surface of a sphere.
 It is accomplished by stereographic projection of a sphere on a plane.
THEOREM 5-5:A planar graph may be embedded in a
plane such that any specified region(i.e,Specified by the
edges forming it) can be made the infinite region.
Eulers formula
Theorem 47: A connected planar graph with
n vertices and e edges has e-n+2 regions
COROLLARY:In any simple, connected planar
graph with f regions, n vertices, and e edges (e >
2), the following inequalities must hold :

Proof: Since each region is bounded by at least three edges and each edge belongs to
exactly two regions
Thus the graph violates inequality (5-6), and hence it is
not planar.
Plane Representation and
Connectivity:
 A disconnected graph is planar if and only if each of its components is
planar.
 A separable graph is planar if and only if each of its blocks is planar.
 Two embeddings of a planar graph on spheres are not distinct if the
embeddings can be made to coincide by suitably rotating one sphere
with respect to the other and possibly distorting regions. Such graph
is said to have unique embedding on a sphere
example
THEOREM 5-7 :The spherical embedding of
every planar 3-connected graph is unique.

 The theorem states that a 3-connected graph, if it can be embedded

at all, can be embedded in only one way
GEOMETRIC DUAL

 Consider the plane representation of a graph

 Letus place six points p1, p2, . . . , p6, one in each
of the regions,
 Next let us join these six points

 If two regions Fi and Fj are adjacent (i.e.,

have a common edge), draw a line joining
points pi and pj that intersects the common
edge between Fi and Fj exactly once.
 If there is more than one edge common
between Fi and Fj, draw one line between
points pi and pj for each of the common
edges.
 For an edge e lying entirely in one region,
say Fk, draw a self-loop at point pk
intersecting e exactly once

new graph G*
relationship between a planar graph
G and its dual G* are
1. An edge forming a self-loop in G yields a pendant edge† in G*.
2. A pendant edge in G yields a self-loop in G*.
3. Edges that are in series in G produce parallel edges in G*.
4. Parallel edges in G produce edges in series in G*.
5. 1-4 are the result of the general observation that the number of edges
constituting the boundary of a region Fi in G is equal to the degree of
the corresponding vertex pi in G*, and vice versa.
6. Graph G* is also embedded in the plane and is therefore planar.
7. Considering the process of drawing a dual G* from G, it is evident that G is a
dual of G*.Therefore, instead of calling G* a dual of G, we usually say that G
and G* are dual graphs.
8. If n, e, f, r, and µ denote as usual the numbers of vertices, edges, regions,
rank, and nullity of a connected planar graph G, and if n*, e*, f*, r*, and µ* are
the corresponding numbers in dual graph G*, then
Uniqueness of Dual Graphs:

 a planar graph G will have a unique dual if and only if it has a unique
plane representation or unique embedding on a sphere.
same graph (isomorphic) had
two distinct embeddings, (a)
and (b)

the duals of these

isomorphic graphs
are nonisomorphic
THEOREM 5-10 All duals of a planar graph G are 2-isomorphic;
and every graph 2-isomorphic to a dual of G is also a dual of G.
MATRIX REPRESENTATION OF
GRAPHS
 A matrix is a convenient and useful way of representing a graph to a
computer
Adjecency matrix

 The adjacency matrix of a graph G with n vertices and no parallel

edges is an n by n symmetric binary matrix X = [xij] defined over the
ring of integers such that xij = 1, if there is an edge between ith and
jth vertices, and = 0, if there is no edge between them.
Observations that can be made
immediately about the adjacency matrix X

1. The entries along the principal diagonal of X are all 0′s if and only if
the graph has no self-loops. A self-loop at the ith vertex corresponds to
xij = 1.
2. The definition of adjacency matrix makes no provision for parallel
edges. This is why the adjacency matrix X was defined for graphs
without parallel edges.
3. If the graph has no self-loops (and no parallel edges, of course), the
degree of a vertex equals the number of 1′s in the corresponding row
or column of X.
4. Hence two graphs G1, and G2 with no parallel edges are isomorphic if
and only if their adjacency matrices X(Gt) and X(G2) are related:

where R is a permutation matrix.

5. A graph G is disconnected and is in two components g1 and g2 if and
only if its adjacency matrix X(G) can be partitioned as

where X(g1) is the adjacency matrix of the component g1 and X(g2)

is that of
the component g2. implies that there exists no edge joining any
vertex in
subgraph g1 to any vertex in subgraph g2.
6. Given any square, symmetric, binary matrix Q of order n, one can
always construct a graph G of n vertices (and no parallel edges) such
that Q is the adjacency matrix of G.
Powers of X:

 Let us multiply by itself the 6 by 6 adjacency matrix of the simple

graph . The result, another 6 by 6 symmetric matrix X2
The value of an off-diagonal entry in X2, that
is, ijth entry in X2,

 = number of 1′s in the dot product of ith row and jth

column (or jth row) of X.
 = number of positions in which both ith and jth rows of
X have 1′s.
 = number of vertices that are adjacent to both ith and
jth vertices.
 = number of different paths of length two between ith
and jth vertices
 Similarly, the ith diagonal entry in X2 is the number of
1‛s in the ith row (or column) of matrix X.
THEOREM:
INCIDENCE MATRIX

• Such a matrix A is called the vertex-edge incidence matrix, or simply incidence

matrix.
• Matrix A for a graph G is sometimes also written as A(G).
• The incidence matrix contains only two elements, 0 and 1.
• Such a matrix is called a binary matrix or a (0, 1)-matrix.
Graph and its incidence matrix.
observations about the incidence matrix
A
THEOREM 7-1 Two graphs G1 and G2 are isomorphic if
and only if their incidence matrices A(G1) and A(G2) differ
only by permutations of rows and columns.

 Proof:
 Let the graphs G1 and G2 be isomorphic. Then, there is a one-one
correspondence between the vertices and edges in G1 and G2 such
that the incidence relation is preserved.
 Hence, A(G1) and A(G2) are either same or differ only by permutation
of rows and columns.
 The converse follows, since permutation of any two rows or columns
in an incidence matrix simply corresponds to relabelling the vertices
and edges of the same graph.
Rank of the Incidence Matrix:

 Each row in an incidence matrix A(G) may be regarded as a vector

over GF(2) in the vector space of graph G. Let the vector in the first
row be called A1, in the second row A2, and so on. Thus

 Since there are exactly two 1’s in every column of A, the sum of all these
vectors is 0 (this being a modulo 2 sum of the corresponding entries). Thus
vectors A1A2 linearly dependent. Therefore, rankA < n. Hence, rankA <= n-1.
From the above observations, we have the following result.
Theorem : If A(G) is an incidence matrix of a
connected graph G with n vertices, then rank of
A(G) is n -1
 If G is a disconnected graph with k
components, then rank(A(G)) = n-k
COROLLARY: The reduced
incidence matrix of a tree is
nonsingular.
CIRCUIT MATRIX

 Let the number of different circuits in a graph G be q and the number

of edges in G be e.
 Then a circuit matrix B = [bij] of G is a q by e, (0, 1)-matrix defined as
follows:
bij = 1, if ith circuit includes jth edge,
= 0, and otherwise.
Example: graph and its circuit
matrix

The graph in Figure has four different circuits, {a, b}, {c, e, g}, {d, f, g}, and
{c, d, f, e}.
 The following observations can be made about a circuit matrix B(G) of a graph G:
1. A column of all zeros corresponds to a non circuit edge (i.e., an edge that does
not belong to any circuit).
2. Each row of B(G) is a circuit vector.
3. Unlike the incidence matrix, a circuit matrix is capable of representing a self-
loop—the corresponding row will have a single 1.
4. The number of 1’s in a row is equal to the number of edges in the corresponding
circuit.
5. If graph G is separable (or disconnected) and consists of two blocks (or
components) g1 and g2, the circuit matrix B(G) can be written in a block diagonal
form as

where B(g1) and B(g2) are the circuit matrices of g1 and g2

6. Permutation of any two rows or columns in a circuit matrix simply
corresponds to
relabeling the circuits and edges.
7. Two graphs G1 and G2 will have the same circuit matrix if and only if G1
and G2 are
2-isomorphic
THEOREM:

Let B and A be, respectively, the circuit matrix and the incidence
matrix (of a self-loop-free graph) whose columns are arranged using
the same order of edges. Then every row of B is orthogonal to every
row A; that is,

where superscript T denotes the transposed

matrix.
incidence circuit matrix
matrix.
PATH MATRIX
 A path matrix is defined for a specific pair of
vertices in a graph, say (x, y), and is written as
P(x,y).
 The rows in P(x, y) correspond to different paths
between vertices x and y, a
 the columns correspond to the edges in G.
 The path matrix for (x, y) vertices is
 P(x, y) = [pij],
where pij = 1, if jth edge lies in ith path, and
otherwise
=0
consider all paths between vertices v3
and v4 There are three different
paths;
{h, e},
{h, g, c}, and
{h, f, d, c}.
Let us number them 1, 2, and 3, respectively.
Then we get the 3 by 8 path matrix P(v3, v4):
Some of the observations one can make at
once about a path matrix P(x, y) of a graph G
are
1. A column of all 0’s corresponds to an edge that does not lie in any
path between x and y.
2. A column of all 1’s corresponds to an edge that lies in every path
between x and y.
3. There is no row with all 0’s.
4. The ring sum of any two rows in P(x, y) corresponds to a circuit or an
edge-disjoint union of circuits.
THEOREM: If the edges of a connected graph are arranged
in the same order for the columns of the incidence matrix A
and the path matrix P(x, y), then the product (mod 2)

where the matrix M has 1′s in two rows x

and y, and the rest of the n − 2 rows are all
0’s