Chapter 2
Network
Models
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Chapter 2: Outline
2.1 Protocol Layering
2.2 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
2.3 OSI Model
Chapter 2: Objective
The first section introduces the concept of protocol layering
using two scenarios. The section also discusses the two
principles upon which the protocol layering is based. The
first principle dictates that each layer needs to have two
opposite tasks. The second principle dictates that the
corresponding layers should be identical. The section ends
with a brief discussion of logical connection between two
identical layers in protocol layering. Throughout the book,
we need to distinguish between logical and physical
connections.
Chapter 2: Objective (continued)
The second section discusses the five layers of the TCP/IP
protocol suite. We show how packets in each of the five
layers (physical, data-link, network, transport, and
application) are named. We also mention the addressing
mechanism used in each layer. Each layer of the TCP/IP
protocol suite is a subject of a part of the book. In other
words, each layer is discussed in several chapters; this
section is just an introduction and preparation.
The third section gives a brief discussion of the OSI model.
This model was never implemented in practice, but a brief
discussion of the model and its comparison with the TCP/IP
protocol suite may be useful to better understand the TCP/IP
protocol suite. In this section we also give a brief reason for
the OSI model’s lack of success.
2-1 PROTOCOL LAYERING
A word we hear all the time when we
talk about the Internet is protocol. A
protocol defines the rules that both
the sender and receiver and all
intermediate devices need to follow
to be able to communicate
effectively. When communication is
simple, we may need only one simple
protocol; when the communication is
complex, we need a protocol at each
2.5
2.1.1 Scenarios
Let us develop two simple scenarios to better
understand the need for protocol layering.
In the first scenario, communication is so simple
that it can occur in only one layer.
In the second, the communication between Maria
and Ann takes place in three layers.
2.6
Figure 2.1: A single-layer protocol
2.7
Figure 2.2: A three-layer protocol
Postal carrier facility
2.8
2.1.2 Principles of Protocol Layering
Let us discuss two principles of protocol layering.
The first principle dictates that if we want
bidirectional communication, we need to make each
layer so that it is able to perform two opposite tasks,
one in each direction.
The second principle that we need to follow in
protocol layering is that the two objects under each
layer at both sites should be identical.
2.9
2.1.3 Logical Connections
After following the above two principles, we can
think about logical connection between each layer
as shown in Figure 2.3. This means that we have
layer-to-layer communication. Maria and Ann can
think that there is a logical (imaginary) connection
at each layer through which they can send the object
created from that layer. We will see that the concept
of logical connection will help us better understand
the task of layering we encounter in data
communication and networking.
2.10
Figure 2.3: Logical connection between peer layers
2.11
2-2 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE
A word we hear all the time when we
talk about the Internet is protocol. A
protocol defines the rules that both
the sender and receiver and all
intermediate devices need to follow
to be able to communicate
effectively. When communication is
simple, we may need only one simple
protocol; when the communication is
complex, we need a protocol at each
2.12
Figure 2.4: Layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite
2.13
2.2.1 Layered Architecture
To show how the layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite
are involved in communication between two hosts,
we assume that we want to use the suite in a small
internet made up of three LANs (links), each with a
link-layer switch. We also assume that the links are
connected by one router, as shown in Figure 2.5.
2.14
Figure 2.5: Communication through an internet
2.15
2.2.2 Layers in the TCP/IP Protocol Suite
After the above introduction, we briefly discuss the
functions and duties of layers in the TCP/IP
protocol suite. Each layer is discussed in detail in
the next five parts of the book. To better understand
the duties of each layer, we need to think about the
logical connections between layers. Figure 2.6
shows logical connections in our simple internet.
2.16
Figure 2.6: Logical connections between layers in
TCP/IP
Logical
connections
2.17
What Is a Logical Connection?
In the transport layer (especially with TCP), a logical
connection is established through constructs like
sockets, port numbers, sequence numbers, and
window sizes. This combination allows two
processes (on different hosts) to communicate
reliably with each other. Essentially, it feels like a
continuous, two-way connection even though the
underlying network handles packets independently.
•At a conceptual level, a logical connection
means that:
• The sender sends a request (like a SYN in TCP).
• The receiver sends back an acknowledgment.
• Only then does the "logical connection" get
defined as established. If there's no positive
response, the communication attempt is
2.18
Figure 2.7: Identical objects in the TCP/IP protocol
suite
Identical objects (messages)
Identical objects (segment or user datagram)
Identical objects (datagram) Identical objects (datagram)
Identical objects (frame) Identical objects (frame)
Identical objects (bits) Identical objects (bits)
2.19
Terminology by Layer
Level (Layer) Term Description
Used with TCP—contains
application data plus TCP
Transport (Layer 4) Segment
header (sequence numbers,
ports, checksum).
Used with UDP—lightweight,
connectionless unit with UDP
header and data; “datagram”
User Datagram / Datagram
often refers to IP layer for
UDP, emphasizing unordered,
unreliable delivery.
The IP-level PDU—
encapsulates segments or
Network (Layer 3) Packet
datagrams with IP header
(addresses, TTL, protocol).
Encapsulates packets with
link-layer headers/trailers
Data Link (Layer 2) Frame (e.g., MAC addresses, CRC).
Used for delivery between
adjacent devices.
The actual electrical, optical,
Physical (Layer 1) Bits or radio signals transmitted
over the medium.
2.20
2.2.3 Description of Each Layer
After understanding the concept of logical
communication, we are ready to briefly discuss the
duty of each layer. Our discussion in this chapter
will be very brief, but we come back to the duty of
each layer in next five parts of the book.
2.21
2.2.4 Encapsulation and Decapsulation
One of the important concepts in protocol layering
in the Internet is encapsulation/ decapsulation.
Figure 2.8 shows this concept for the small internet
in Figure 2.5.
2.22
Figure 2.8: Encapsulation / Decapsulation
2.23
2.2.5 Addressing
It is worth mentioning another concept related to
protocol layering in the Internet, addressing. As we
discussed before, we have logical communication
between pairs of layers in this model. Any
communication that involves two parties needs two
addresses: source address and destination address.
Although it looks as if we need five pairs of
addresses, one pair per layer, we normally have only
four because the physical layer does not need
addresses; the unit of data exchange at the physical
layer is a bit, which definitely cannot have an
address.
2.24
Figure 2.9: Addressing in the TCP/IP protocol suite
2.25
2.2.6 Multiplexing and Demultiplexing
Since the TCP/IP protocol suite uses several
protocols at some layers, we can say that we have
multiplexing at the source and demultiplexing at the
destination. Multiplexing in this case means that a
protocol at a layer can encapsulate a packet from
several next-higher layer protocols (one at a time);
demultiplexing means that a protocol can
decapsulate and deliver a packet to several next-
higher layer protocols (one at a time). Figure 2.10
shows the concept of multiplexing and
demultiplexing at the three upper layers.
2.26
Figure 2.10: Multiplexing and demultiplexing
2.27
2-3 OSI MODEL
A word we hear all the time when we
talk about the Internet is protocol. A
protocol defines the rules that both
the sender and receiver and all
intermediate devices need to follow
to be able to communicate
effectively. When communication is
simple, we may need only one simple
protocol; when the communication is
complex, we need a protocol at each
2.28
Figure 2.11: The OSI model
2.29
2.3.1 OSI versus TCP/IP
When we compare the two models, we find that two
layers, session and presentation, are missing from
the TCP/IP protocol suite. These two layers were not
added to the TCP/IP protocol suite after the
publication of the OSI model. The application layer
in the suite is usually considered to be the
combination of three layers in the OSI model, as
shown in Figure 2.12.
2.30
Figure 2.12: TCP/IP and OSI model
2.31
