BIOPHYSICS

M U N S A KA J
 OBJECTIVES

At the end of the course the student should be able

to:
Define key terms used in biophysics.
Formulate physical laws and apply them.
Enumerate the units of measurement
using System International Units (SI
Units).
Outline the forces and their application to
nursing.
Demonstrate the flow of electrons.
 CT

Apply the bioelectric principle to the

human body.
State the laws of pressure and their
application.
State various gas laws and their application
to the respiratory system.
Outline heat production and heat loss.
Describe rays and waves
Demonstrate the uses of levers and pulleys.
 Definition of terms

PHYSICS- the science of

matter and energy and the
relationship between them.
It is based on mathematics
and traditionally includes
mechanics, optics,
electricity and magnetism
and heat.
SCIENCE- knowledge about or study of the

natural world based on facts learned

through experiments and observation.

BIO-PHYSICS-the science that deals with

the application of physics to biological

processes and phenomena.

 PHYSICAL PHENOMENON

A physical phenomenon
is natural occurrence
involving physical
properties of matter and
energy which is expressed
in terms of natural laws.
 A physical quantity is a quantity
that can be used in the mathematical
equations of science and technology.
Most of most of these laws can be
represented graphically for the
relationship of physical quantities to
be established.
FORMULATION OF PHYSICAL LAWS

The scientific method has four steps:

Observation and description of a
phenomenon or group of phenomena.
Formulation of hypothesis to explain
the phenomena. In physics , the
hypothesis often takes the form of
casual mechanisms or mathematical
relationship.
 CT

Use of hypothesis to predict ther

existence of other phenomena , or
to predict quantitatively the
results of new observations.
Performance of experimental
tests of predictions by several
independent experimenters and
properly performed experiments.
If the experiment bears out the
hypothesis it may come to be
regarded as a theory or law of
nature. If the experiment do not
bear out the hypothesis, it must
be rejected or modified.
Example : an increase in heat
intensity increase the rate of
chemical reaction
 PROPORTIONS

Proportionality is the relationship

between two variables whose ration is
constant. There are two types of
proportions :
Direct –if one quantity is directly
proportional to another it changes in
the same way, as it increases so does
the other and as it decreases the other
decreases as well.
 CT

Example, Charles’ law which state

that at a constant pressure the volume
of a gas varies directly with absolute
temperature. P α T.
 CT

Inverse proportion- if one quantity is

inversely proportional to each other, it
changes in the opposite way, as it
increases the other decreases.
For example Boyle’s law which states that
at a constant temperature the volume of a
gas varies inversely as the pressure, and
the pressure varies inversely as the
volume. P α 1/V. This relationship applies
to the mechanism of respiration.
 MEASUREMENTS

Measurement: is the process by which

one can convert physical parameters
to meaningful number.
Unit: A unit is a particular physical
quantity, defined and adopted by
convention, with which other
particular quantities of the same kind
are compared to express their value.
 FUNDAMENTAL UNITS

The International System of Units, or SI, is

the standard system of measurement used by
many scientists. Using the same standards of
measurement makes it easier for scientists to
communicate with one another.
The basic units are called fundamentals,
while all the others which can be expressed
in terms of fundamental units are called
derived units, and formed by multiplying or
dividing fundamental units.
The primary fundamental units which most
commonly used are length, mass, and time,
while measurement of certain physical
quantities in thermal, electrical, and
illumination disciplines are also represented
by fundamental units.
These units are used only when these particular
classes are involved, and they may therefore be
defined as auxiliary fundamental units. Every
derived unit originates from some physical law
defining that unit.
The six basic S.I quantity and units of measurement,
with their unit symbol:

QUANTITY UNIT SYMBO

L
LENGTH Metre m
MASS kilogram kg
TIME Second s
ELECTRIC CURRENT Ampere A
THERMODYNAMIC Kelvin K
TEMPERATURE
LUMINOUS INTENSITY Candela cd

Amount of substance Mole mol

 SI derived units

Derived units are units which may be

expressed in terms of base units by
means of the mathematical symbols of
multiplication and division.
 CT

DERIVED UNIT NAME SYMBOL

AREA Square metre m2
VOLUME Cubic metre m3
SPEED/ Metre per ms-1
VELOCITY second
DENSITY Kilogram per Kgm-3
cubic metre
ACCELERATION Metre per ms-2
square second
AMOUNT OF Mole per cubic molm-3
SUBSTANCE metre
 UNITS WITH SPECIAL NAMES

Units with special names and

symbols; units which incorporate units
with special names and symbols.
 CT

Derived name symbol Expressed in

quantity terms of other
SI units
force Newton N Kgm//s2
Pressure Pascal Pa Nm-2
Energy/ work Joules J Nm
Power Watt W Js-1
frequency Hertz Hz s-1
Electric charge Coulomb C A.S

Celcius
temperature Degree Celcius 0
C K
Rules and style conventions for writing and using
SI unit symbols

The product of two or more units are

indicated by means of either a half-
high (that is, centred) dot or a space
for example: /N.m or N m.
A solidus (oblique stroke, /), a
horizontal line, or negative exponents
may be used to express a derived unit
formed from two others by division,
for example: m/s, or m s-1
The solidus must not be
repeated on the same line
unless ambiguity is avoided by
parentheses. In complicated
cases negative exponents or
parentheses should be used,
for example: m s-2 or m /s but
not: m/s/s.
 MOST COMMONLY USED PREFIXES

PRIFIX SYMBOL FACTOR

Mega M 106

Kilo k 103

Centi c 10-2

milli m 10-3

micro μ 10-6

nano n 10-9

pico p 10-12
 CALIBRATION

Operation that , under specified

conditions , in a first step establishes
a relation between the quantity values
with measurements uncertainties
provided by measurement standards
and corresponding indications
associated measurement
uncertainties
 CT

OR is a comparison between
measurements- one of known
magnitude or correctness made or set
with one device and another
measurement made in a similar a way
as possible with a second device.
The device with known or assigned
correctness is called the standard.
 ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT

Errors:
Errors and uncertainties are inherent in the
process of making any measurement and in
the instruments with which the
measurements are made.
There are two common types of
measurement errors random and systematic.
 RANDOM ERRORS

Random error : is associated with the

fact that when a measurement is
repeated it will generally provide a
measured value that is different from a
previous value. It is random in that the
next measured value cannot be predicted
exactly from the previous values. The
random errors are accidental, small and
independent.
 SYSTEMATIC ERRORS

Systematic Errors: The

systematic errors are repeated
consistently with the
repetition of the experiment
and are caused by such effects
as sensitivity shift, zero-offset
and known non-linearity.
 CT

Instrumental Errors:
These errors arise due to
inherent short comings of
the instruments, misuse of
the instruments, loading
effects of the instruments.
Environmental Errors: These
errors are due to conditions
external to the measuring
device (e.g. effects of pressure,
temperature, humidity, dust,
vibrations, external magnetic
or electrostatic fields, etc.).
 CT

Observational Errors: These errors

are due to carelessness of
operators. Even when an
instrument is properly selected,
carefully installed and correctly
calibrated, shortcomings in the
measurement occurs due to certain
failings on the part of the observer.
 MEASUREMENT OF TEMPERATURE

Temperature is the measure

of sensation of warmth or
coldness of an object. It is
measured in different scales
including the Fahrenheit and
Celsius. A clinical
thermometer is used to
measure the temperature of
 CT

To define a reproducible

temperature scale, the most
important points are the
freezing point and the boiling
point of an easily available
substance such as water.
These reference temperatures
are defined at standard
 CT

The freezing point of water

is 0 and boiling point is at
standard pressure is 100 0C.
between these two points are
inserted 100 equally spaced
divisions. This define a
Celsius scale.
 CT

A Kelvin scale : there are 100 Kelvin

divisions between boiling and freezing
points but zero of this scale is chosen
to be the absolute zero. Absolute zero
is about -273K, so the zero on the
Kelvin scale corresponds to 273K.
Tk =Tc + 273
Tc = Tk - 273.
 CT

The Fahrenheit
The Celsius and Fahrenheit scales are related
as
 C = F- 32
5 9

Convert 98.6 F to degree Celsius.

 FORCES

A force is a push of
a pull acting upon
an object a result of
its interaction with
another object.
 FUNDAMENTAL LAWS OF MOTION

Behaviours of many
objects are described
accurately by general
laws of motion, were first
stated fully by Sir Isaac
Newton (1642-1727).
 Newton’s first law

A body continues in its state

of rest, or uniform motion in
a straight line, unless
compelled to change that
state by forces impressed
upon it.
 Newton’s first law
If an object is at rest then
it will remain at rest or if it
is moving along a straight
line with uniform speed
then it will continue moving
unless an external force is
applied on it to change its
existing state.
Newton’s First Law of
motion is also known as law
of inertia.
Application
When wheeling the patient
on a patient on a stretcher
and suddenly stop, the
 CT

 When the heart

contracts, the
systemic circulation
is as a result of
inertia.
Newton’s second law (Fundamental Law of Dynamics)

The rate of change of momentum of

a body is proportional to the applied
force and the change takes in the
direction in which the force acts.
There is a proportionality constant
called mass, the proportion of the
force to the acceleration, that is
always constant for a given object.
 CT

Consider a force, F acting on a

body of mass, m, then; F = ma,

Application
The need to exert a greater force
when moving a heavy patient on a
trolley or moving a box of
vacolitres.the need to ask force
 Newton’s third law (The Law of Reaction)

The third law states that to

every action there is always an
equal and opposite reaction. It
follows that all of the forces
acting in the Universe can
ultimately be grouped into equal
and opposite action -reaction
pairs.
 CT

Application
This concept can be
applied in patients on
traction where there is the
pulling effect of the weights
and that of the patient.
 TYPES OF FORCES

Gravitational forces
Is the force of attraction
due to gravity or a force
of attraction that exist
between two objects.
W= mg
 ct

Application
 Taking advantage of gravitational
pressure differences intravenous
infusion is performed. Postural
drainage, elevation of foot of bed to
encourage venous return in cases of
oedema of lower limbs and when
feeding patient with nasogastric
tube.
 Centrifugal force

It is the force experienced by an object when

it moves in a circular motion. The force is
always directed towards the centre.
Application
Since different materials have different
densities, a simple centripetal apparatus can
be used these materials from a mixture in
the laboratory.
 Separation of blood cells from the liquid
portion (plasma) in blood.
 Frictional forces

Is the force that result when two objects

slide over each other. The size of the
frictional force depends on the nature of
the surfaces.
It allows the movement of blood in the
vessels, movement of air in the
respiratory tract and even the movement
of a bolus of food through the
oesophagus. The movement of trolley,
wheel chairs depends on frictional force.
 Chemotactic force

The force of attraction that

determines the direction in
which will move and is
attributed to substances
liberated at sites of tissue
damage or infection.
 ct

Inflammation creates a
concentration gradient followed
by the neutrophill. The
substances that create a
concentration gradient are called
Chemotactic forces, and the one
way migration of cells along the
gradient is called chemotaxis.
 Electrical forces

When inorganic salts dissolve in

body fluids, they form
electrolytes which are able to
produce electrical forces. The
electrical forces create action
potential causing transmission of
impulses and muscle
contraction.
The electrical currents
produced by the myocardium
assist the contraction of the
heart muscle. These currents
are due to variations in the
transmembrane potentials of
the muscle fibres during each
cardiac cycle.
 Magnetic force

Magnetic force is the attraction

or repulsion that arise between
electrically charged particles
because of their motion. In the
human body, there is a constant
movement of ions within and
outside the cells as well as across
cellular membranes.
 ct

This electrical activity is responsible for

magnetic fields, called biomagnetic
fields.
Gadolinium(III) chelates are commonly
used in Magnetic Resonance Imaging
applications. Iron coated with activated
carbon has recently been tried for
magnetic drug targeting for the
treatment of hepatocellular carcinomas.
 GASES

Gases are one of the three

states of matter.
The physical properties of gases
depend on the structures of their
gaseous molecules and the
chemical properties of gases also
depend upon their structures.
The behaviour of gases that
exists as single molecules is
a good example of the
dependence of the
macroscopic properties of
matter on microscopic
structure.
 Properties of gases

(1) Gases are transparent.

(2) Gases distribute
uniformly in a vessel
whatever shape it may have.
(3) Gases in a container
exert pressure on its walls.
 ) The volume of a given amount
(4
of gas is equal to the volume of
its container. If a gas is not
confined in a vessel, the volume
of the gas will become infinitely
large, and its pressure will
become infinitely small.
5) Gases diffuse in all directions regardless of
the presence or absence of external pressure.
(6) When two or more gases mix, they
distribute uniformly.
(7) Gases can be compressed by external
pressure. If the pressure is reduced, the gas
will expand.
(8) Gases will expand if heated, and will shrink
if cooled.
 Dalton’s law

Dalton proposed the law of

partial pressures which
states that the total
pressure P that the gas
exerts is equal to the sum of
the partial pressures of the
two gases.
Suppose a mixture of
two kinds of gases A (nA
mol) and B (nB mol) has a
volume of V at a
temperature T. The
following equations can
be obtained for each gas.
PA = nART/V
pB = nBRT/V,
where pA and pB are called the
partial pressures of gas A
and gas B, respectively. The
partial pressure is the
pressure that a component in
the mixed gas would exert if it

If the atmospheric
pressure is
760mmHg , then the
partial pressure of
oxygen will be:
20/100×760=
 CT

Dalton proposed the law of

partial pressures which states
that the total pressure P that
the gas exerts is equal to the
sum of the partial pressures of
the two gases. Thus,
P = pA + pB = (nA + nB)RT/V.
This law indicates that in a
mixed gas each component gas
exerts pressure completely
independently. Though several
gases are present, the pressure
each gas exerts is not influenced
by the presence of other gases.
 BOYLE’S LAW

Boyle’s law states that at a

constant temperature the
volume of a gas varies
inversely as the pressure,
and the pressure varies
inversely as the volume. P α
1/V.

 CT

During inhalation the diaphragm

moves downwards, increasing the
volume of the thoracic cavity. At
the same time the intercostals
muscles contract to lift the ribs
upward and outward , thus also
increasing the volume of the
thoracic cavity.
 Hence the pressure
decreases, then the
atmospheric pressure will
push air into the partially
inflated lungs.
 Charles law

It states that if a given

quantity of gas is held at
a constant pressure its
volume is directly
proportional to the
absolute temperature.
As the temperature of
gas increases, the gas
molecules will begin to
move around more
quickly and hit the walls
of the container with
more force, thus the
The expression of Charles law:
V1 = V2
T1 T2
A sample of gas at 15 0C and 1
atmosphere has a volume of 2.50 L
what volume will gas this gas
occupy at 30 0 C and 1 atmosphere?
 TRANSPORT OF RESPIRATORY GASES

The exchange of
gases in the lungs is a
process that proceeds
by diffusion.
Venous blood from pulmonary
artery has high content of
carbondioxide and low levels of
oxygen.
Carbondioxide diffuses from
venous blood into alveoli and
exhaled and oxygen from the
alveoli diffuses into the blood at a
rate proportional to its partial
The partial pressure in the
blood quickly approaches
100mmHg and is nearly
saturated. The oxygen is
carried to the capillaries
where the concentration
gradient are favourable for the
transfer of oxygen into the
 ARTIFICIAL RESPIRATORS

Respiration is controlled by nerve

impulses from the brain.
The impulses are produced in the
respiratory centre and are transmitted
to the respiratory muscles.
 The amount of air that flows is
dependent of the pressure differences
and the resistance that the air
passages offer towards the flow.
 ct

Respirators can be used to

correct faults in respiration. The
purpose of respirators is to
produce a sufficient pressure
differences between the two ends
of air passages or increase an
existing but insufficient pressure
difference.
This can be done in two ways;
By producing a pressure in the
lungs that is less than the
atmospheric pressure.
 Such a pressure is a negative
pressure and respirators that
operates on this principle are called
negative pressure respirators.
 ct

By producing pressure

at the mouth that is
greater than atmospheric
pressure and are known
as positive pressure
respirators.
 Negative pressure respirators

An example is the iron –lung. The

patient is placed in a metal case in a
way that the head remains outside.
The pressure in the metal case can
be regulated when this pressure
decrease, the chest expands and
thereafter inspiration proceeds
normally.
For expiration , the pressure in
the metal case is increased. The
negative pressure is rarely used
because the iron lung is too
heavy an it is difficult to get an
airtight connection between the
small apparatus and the patient.
 Positive pressure respirators
CT

Produce a high pressure at the

entrance to the air passages.
The high pressure is produced by
compressing an elastic bag that
has been filled with air.
 Expiration takes place passively
as the expanded lungs resume
their normal shape due to their
elasticity.
 CT

Direction of air flow is

controlled by special valves
located in the system. In
modern respirators the pressure
changes and the opening and
closing of the valves are
controlled automatically.
 CT

There are two groups of respirators;

a). the automatic respirators in which the
frequency of respiration is controlled
automatically. These are used in patients
who cannot breathe at all.
b) supportive respirators which are used in
patient who can breathe but insufficiently.
In this case his attempts at respiration are
used to activate the respirators.
 HEAT

Heat is a form of energy that can be

transferred from one (a hotter) object to
another (a colder) object, the energy being in
the form of the kinetic energy of the
molecules of the object.
Heat is produced as a by-product of normal
metabolic activity. Roughly two-thirds of the
energy available from the metabolism of
glucose, amino acids, or fat is dispersed as
heat; the rest is stored as chemical energy in
the form of ATP (adenosine triphosphate).
 CT

Metabolism of fat releases almost twice the

energy when compared to that of glucose
and amino acids.
Heat production can be increased by
voluntary muscle activity (exercise),
involuntary muscle activity (shivering), or
non-shivering thermogenesis.
Changes in temperature beyond the inter-
threshold range initiate efferent responses
that increase heat production (shivering or
non-shivering thermogenesis),
or decrease heat loss (vasoconstriction) in
response to cold; or increase heat loss (sweating
and vasodilatation) in response to warmth. When
core temperature decreases, initially muscle
tone is increased, and then shivering occurs.
Shivering is an involuntary skeletal muscle
activity that occurs once the cold core
temperature threshold is reached (36.0°C).
Heat production can be increased up to six-fold
while shivering, and up to 20-fold at maximum
intensity of exercise.
 CT

In brown adipose tissue, when all the energy of

metabolism is dispersed as heat without storing
any in ATP, it is called non-shivering
thermogenesis.
In neonates without significant muscle mass,
nonshivering thermogenesis is an important
method of heat production.
Brown adipose tissue has an abundant vascular
supply and sympathetic innervation. Non-
shivering thermogenesis is inhibited by
sympathetic blockade and by inhalational agents.
 CT

Metabolic rate is higher in

children, and metabolic activity
is increased by hormones such
as thyroxine and growth
hormone.
Under normal conditions, body
heat is preserved by tonic
peripheral vasoconstriction.
Electricity
 Definition

Electricity is a form of energy

which basically deals with the
behaviour of charged particles.
 man has no sense organs which
perceive charged particles.
Only the effects are manifested
Electricity mainly deals with
charged particles
All substances in nature can be divided
into elements and compounds.
# Element: it is the primary part of a
compound e.g. H2; O2 two or more
elements react together to produce
compounds e.g. H2/O2 – H2O the
compound. It can be broken down to
atoms without loosing original
properties.
#Molecule: is the smallest portion
of a compound that possesses
specific properties of that
compound (once broken down to
atoms, the original properties of
the compound are lost).
# Atoms: smallest portion of an
element that still possesses the
original properties of an element.
An atom is built up of 3 particles
that are electrons, protons and
neutrons.
 A stable atom has the same
number of protons and electrons
and therefore neutral. The size of
the electric charge carried by
protons and electrons is equal.
Elements differ from each other
in that their atoms do not possess
the same number of neutrons .
There is what we call the atomic
number (Z) which is the total
number of protons in an element
and
 atomic mass (A) which is the
total number of protons and
neutrons in an element.
Ions: a stable atom is electrically neutral
because there is the same number of
electrons outside the nucleus as protons in it.
When an atom loses or gains an electron, it
becomes ionized, that is the number of
protons vs electrons no longer balances out
 it therefore carries a positive or negative
charge e.g. H2 loses an electron and becomes
an H+ ion with excess of protons.
 Isotope: various forms of an
element having the same atomic
number but different atomic mass
number e.g. 2H, 1H, 3H or 35Cl or
37
Cl.
Free electrons in a metal:
electrons move in orbits around
the nucleus of an atom.
 Orbit 1 is close to the nucleus
and contains 2 electrons,
 Orbit 2 has 8 or less electrons
and
 orbit 3 has 18 or less.
 This means that in an element with many
electrons, the electrons in the outside orbit
are furthest from the nucleus therefore the
forces of attraction on an electron
diminish with distance from the nucleus.
 This means that electrons can free
themselves easily from the force of attraction
of the nucleus if external forces act upon
them.
-It is these free electrons that make the flow
of electricity possible.
 Good conductors of electricity have many
free electrons in their outer shells e.g.
metals, copper.
Bad conductors (insulators) are materials
with few free electrons.
 Semi-conductors (intermedial group)
 Flow of electricity

-Electrons flow in a metal and a

force is necessary to facilitate this
movement
The force is called the
Electromotive force (e.m.f).
Once the force is created (that is
from battery) in the metal, the
free electrons will move in an
orderly fashion, thus producing a
current and the greater the
number of free electrons within a
certain time unit, the stronger the
electrical current produced.
-In a metal the direction of
electron flow is from the negative
end to the positive end.
A difference in charge cause
electrons to flow and the force
causing the flow the emf potential
difference is measured in volts by
a voltmeter.
The simplest way of producing an
electromotive force is by of an
electrical cell e.g. A cell battery.
Some sources of energy that
continues to make electrons to
move are solar energy, thermal
energy, chemical reaction and
waterfall mechanical energy.
 Flow of electricity through liquids

In liquids the conducting

property is determined by the
concentration of ions present.
Water consists of water molecules of which a
certain number are ionized;
 when water molecules dissociates (or
ionizes) H+ ions and OH- ions are produced.
 In this case only a certain small fraction of
water dissociates and therefore there are
only a few ions to propagate the flow of
electricity.
If table salt (NaCl) is dissolved in water, it
dissociates as follows:
NaCl<==>Na+ and Cl-
As with pure water, only a fraction of NaCl
ionises before equilibrium is reached;
however this fraction is greater than that of
pure water.
 Therefore, NaCl is a better conductor of
electricity than pure water.
 Insulators

These are substances whose

atoms are firmly held, therefore
electrons can not freely flow
through them.
They are poor conductors of
electricity .
 Earth leads

these carry away electrical charge of an

electric appliance to the earth
the earth wire transmit electricity to the
earth ( earth accepts electrons)
electrical appliances are earthed to prevent
user from electrocution ( electric shock)
in a short circuit electricity may flow through
the body of the appliance.
fusing ( fuse) is a thin piece of wire that is
placed in an electric appliance that will break
excess charge
a fuse has a maximum current that it allows
to pass through it e.g. 13 amps
above this current the fuse will melt and
break the circuit.
In this manner the electrical appliance is
protected from damage by excess electricity
 Principles of batteries

Batteries are also called the

electrochemical cells and there
are two types:
a)Primary Battery
Limited life span and not
rechargeable e.g. batteries used
in torches, tape researchers and
radios.
b) Secondary battery
They are reusable because they
are capable of being recharge e.g.
motor car batteries, cell phones
batteries.
NB: A battery has two terminals:
 the negative terminal is called
the cathode and
the positive terminal is called the
ANODE.
 Electric circuits

the wire or path along which electricity

travels is called a circuit.
-when there is a break in the circuit,
electricity will not flow and this is an open
circuit.
An unbroken one is the closed circuit.
 -Electric circuits can also be classified as
series or parallel circuits.

SERIES CIRCUIT
-When appliances are connected in a way that
all the electrons that flow through one
appliances also passes through the second
appliance.
-It should be noted that if one appliance in
the circuit does not work all the other
appliances will not work.
 Parallel circuit

In parallel circuit the appliances would

be connected side by side or as the
name suggest would be connected
parallel to each other.
-in such a circuit, if one appliance does
not work others will still be functional.
 This is as a result that electrons would
flow using the other unaffected routes.
 Static Electricity: Shocks
If you walk around on carpeting in your
stocking feet, especially in the winter
when the air is dry, and then touch
something metal, you may feel a shock.
As you walk you can become negatively
charged by friction. When you make
contact with a metal door knob, you
discharge rapidly into the metal and feel
a shock at the point of contact. A similar
effect occurs in the winter when you exit
a car: if you slide out of your seat and
touch then touch the car door, you might
The reason the effect most often occurs in
winter is because the air is typically drier
then. Humidity in the air can rather quickly
rob excess charges from a charged body,
thereby neutralizing it before a rapid,
localized discharge (and resulting shock) can
take place.
Care must be taken to prevent static
discharges where sensitive electronics are in
use or where volatile substances are stored.
Alternating current and direct current

Alternating current (ac) switches the

direction of the current back and forth at 60
times per second (60 Hertz).
Batteries provide direct current
(to increase battery life).
Most devices use direct current
so a transformer converts ac to dc
often at lower voltage
Direct energy conversion devices
like light bulbs, heaters, can run
off ac or dc
 Heat loss

Heat loss occurs by

conduction, convection,
and radiation of heat
from the body to the
surrounding area, and by
evaporation of sweat.
 CONDUCTION

Conduction is heat transfer

through a solid medium.
Conduction is the process
whereby heat energy is
transmitted through a substance
by the transfer of the energy of
motion of the molecules to
adjacent molecules.
 CT

Metals are good

conductors of heat but
gases are poor
conductors. The air
surrounding a person
provides protection from
heat loss through
 CONVECTION

Convection is the heat

transfer through a fluid
medium such as air or
water. This occurs because
the warmer molecules move
within the fluid, i.e. float to
the top when warm or sink
to the bottom when cool.
The air layer next to the surface of the body
is warmed by conduction and as it is heated it
expands, becomes less dense and so rises.
 The resulting convection current carries
heat away from the body.
 The amount of heat lost by convection
depends on the surface area of the body that
is exposed and the amount of airflow.
 CT

A layer of air normally

trapped next to the skin
contributes to insulation.
Clothing increases this
insulating layer and
prevents heat loss to the
environment.
 RADIATION

Radiation is transfer of heat by

infrared waves from the body to
cooler objects (not in physical
contact with the body) in the
surrounding area, and
constitutes the major method of
heat loss to the environment.
 CT

All objects absorb, reflect or

emit electromagnetic energy
(radiation) over a spectrum of
wavelengths.
 Such energy includes light
waves and heat as infrared
waves.
The radiation emitted carries
If this energy is absorbed by
another object, that object will
become hotter. Thus radiation
can transfer heat energy
between two objects which are
not in contact.
 EVAPORATION

Evaporative heat loss is due to the

loss of latent heat of vaporisation of
moisture or other solutions applied to
the skin’s surface. The loss of heat by
this route is dependent on the total
area of skin exposed to the
atmosphere.
Heat transfer is energy transition due
to temperature differences.
 OBJECTIVES

Define machine
Identify types of simple machines
Classify levers and give examples
Define a pulley
Outline the application of pulleys
Explain the concept of body
mechanics
 MACHINES

A machine is a device
consisting of fixed and moving
parts that modifies mechanical
energy and transmit it to a
more useful form.
In human, the skeletal muscles
produce force which enable
movement and the ability to
 CT

The forces that are developed

in the muscles are due to
electrical impulses.
As a result of these forces,
the muscle filaments slide
over each other and cause the
muscle to contract.
 TYPES OF MACHINES

Levers
Pulley
 CT

Levers

Are all rigid bodies that can rotate

about an axis or fulcrum.
Two important features of levers
are:
The point of application of the load
The point where the force is
exerted.
 CLASSIFICATION

First class levers

Second class
lever
Third class lever
First class lever
The fulcrum lies between the points of
application and effort, for example the triceps
muscle , scissors.


FL L l lE
FE
LOAD EFFORT

 Fulcrum
The effort is a force
that has to overcome
some resistance force
which is normally
presented by the load.
 Second class lever

The load is applied between the fulcrum and the

effort, for example wheelbarrow, Artery
clamp/forceps.



LOAD

Fulcrum
effort
 THIRD CLASS LEVER

The effort is between the load and the

fulcrum for example ,

FULCRUM EFFORT LOAD

 CT

The advantage of this type of lever

is the ability to hold small objects.
 The action of the biceps is an
example of a third class lever .
 When the biceps contract, the arm
is turned ant-clockwise, towards the
body, thus lifting a load in the palm.
 PULLEYS

A pulley is a circular disc or

cylinder that can turn around an
axis situated at its centre. There
are two types of pulleys , the fixed
and the movable.
The fixed type is used to change
direction of force , for example
knee- cap.

 string


 disk

 axis
The large muscle of the upper leg produces a
force which is used to lift the lower leg.
 The lower end of the muscle is joined to a
tendon, connected at its opposite end to the
bones of the lower limbs.
 Where the tendon passes over the to the
knee joint, it widens to cover the knee-cap
partially.
The deep surface of the knee
cap is covered with cartilage
and there is a small amount
of fluid between the deep
surface of the knee-cap and
the outer surface of the bone
in which it slides.

The tendon , together with
the base on which it is able
to slide without friction
may be regarded as a
machine since it changes
the direction of the force.
 ct

The fixed pulley can be used to

change the power of traction upon the
limb in certain types of fractures
where fractured ends overlap and the
muscle contract causing shortening of
limb.
 To prevent this the force of traction
is changed from horizontal to vertical
by means of a pulley.
 Body Mechanics

Is the science that deals with

efficient use of machines of the body.
The basic rule of body mechanics is
that the load must be as close to the
fulcrum as possible.
This ensures a small turning moment
of the load and this in turn means a
smaller effort is needed.
 CT

It is important to sit or stand

upright where the upper parts
of the body rest on the lower
parts without showing any
tendency to rotate. The load is
exerted on the fulcrum, the hip
joint and its turning moment is
zero.
 CT

If sitting or standing in a bent

position, the gravitational force on
top parts of the body produces a
turning moment about the fulcrum
in the hip joint and the muscles of
the back must exerts a larger force
to counteract this turning moment
and eventually damage the
structures.