Chapter 6

Sampling
• Sampling refers to drawing a sample (subset) from a
population (the full set).
• The usual goal in sampling is to produce a
representative sample (i.e. a sample that is similar
to the population on all characteristics, except that it
includes fewer people because it is a sample rather
than the complete population).
• In other words, a representative sample is a “mirror
image” of the population from which it was selected.
• The two main types of sampling in quantitative
research are random sampling and nonrandom
sampling.
• The random sampling produces representative
samples.
• Nonrandom sampling does or does not produce
representative samples.
Random Sampling
Techniques
• The most basic type of random sampling is called
simple random sampling.
• Simple random sampling is an equal probability
sampling method (which is abbreviated by EPSEM).
• In this sampling technique everyone in the sampling
frame has an equal chance of being in the final
sample.
• How do you draw a simple random sample? Put the
names of all Sur University College students in
a hat and pull out 50 names from the hat.
• You can use a computer program through the
Internet to select a random sample. You can
use the following address:
www.randomizer.org/form.html
 Systematic sampling
• It is the second type of random sampling.
• It is an equal probability sampling method
(EPSEM), like the simple random sampling.
• It involves three steps:
1. Determine the sampling interval, which is
symbolized be “k”, (it is the population size
divided by the desired sample size). For
example; if the population size is 10000, and
the desired sample size is 500, then the
sampling interval: k is 10000/500=20.
2. Randomly select a number between 1 & k, and
include that number (may be a person number)
in your sample.
3. Include each kth element in your sample.
• Example:
We wanted to select a systematic sample to find out if
university students agree that there educational
programs prepare them to work. We decided that the
size of the sample is 5% of the university population
(8000 students).
1. Arrange the names of the students in order (use any
order you wish, such as arranging them alphabetically
be the first name).
2. Assign sequential number for each student’s name start
from 1-8000
3. Calculate the sample size, which is: 8000X5%=400
student
4. Calculate the interval size, K=8000/400=20
5. We randomly select the number 5 (we write the
numbers 1,2,3,…20 on equal size pieces of paper and
put them in a bag and select one of them; it was the
number 5).
6. We will select the student number 5, 25, 45, 65, …,
7965, and 7985.
 Stratified Random Sampling
• It is a sampling technique depends on
stratification variable, such as gender.
• To select a stratified random sample, you do the
following:
1. Stratify your sampling frame (e.g., divide it into
the males and the females if you are using
gender as your stratification variable. You may
use the educational level of people, or there
age).
2. Take a random sample from each group (i.e.,
take a random sample of males and a random
sample of females).
3. Put these two sets of people together and you
now have your final sample.
• There are two different types of stratified sampling:
1. Proportional stratified sampling: the subsamples
must be proportional to their sizes in the population.
2. Disproportional stratified sampling: the
subsamples are equal in size, which means they are
not proportional to their sizes in the population (e.g.,
50% males & 50% female
• Example:
Assume that your population is 75% female and 25%
male. Assume also that you want a sample of size
100 and you want to stratify on the variable called
gender.
1. For proportional stratified sampling, you would
randomly select 75 females and 25 males from the
population.
2. For disproportional stratified sampling, you might
randomly select 50 females and 50 males.
 Cluster Random Sampling
• In this type of sampling you randomly select
clusters (a cluster has more than one unit in it; e.g.,
a college, a school, a classroom, a football team)
rather than individual type units in the first stage of
sampling.
• There are two types of cluster sampling:
1. One-stage cluster sampling: first you select a
random sample of clusters (an elementary schools
in Sur); then, second, you include in your final
sample all of individual units in the selected sample.
2. Two-stage cluster sampling: first, you take a
random sample of clusters. Second, you select a
random sample of elements from each of the
selected clusters (e.g., you might randomly select
15 students from each class at the school you
selected first).
Nonrandom Sampling
Techniques
• The other major type of sampling done in
quantitative research is called nonrandom
sampling.

• The first type of nonrandom sampling is called

convenience sampling (i.e., it simply involves
using the people who are the most available or the
most conveniently selected).

• The second type of nonrandom sampling is called

quota sampling (i.e., it involves setting quotas and
then using convenience sampling to obtain those
quotas). A set of quotas might be as follows: find 25
Indian males, 25 European males, and 25 Arab
males.
• The third type of nonrandom sampling is called
Purposive sampling (i.e., it involves selecting a
convenience sample from a population with a
specific set of characteristics for your research
study). For example, you might decide that you
want to only include “females in IT department
with overall GPA 3.0 and higher” in your research
study. You would then, try to find 20 students who
meet your “inclusion criteria” to include in your
research study.

• The fourth type of nonrandom sampling is called

snowball sampling (i.e., it involves asking your
participants to identify other potential participants
with a specific set of characteristics, then asking
the next set pf participants you obtain the same
question, and continuing this process until a
sufficient sample size is obtained.
 Random Selection &
Random Assignment
• In random selection, you select a sample from a
population using one of the random sampling techniques
discussed before. The resulting sample will be a “mirror
image” of the population. For example, if you randomly
select 1000 people from the adult population in Sur, the
sample will look like the adult population of Sur.
• In random assignment you start with a set of people
(that may very well be a convenience sample) and then
randomly divide that set of people into two or more
subsets. You are taking a set of people and “assigning”
them to two or more groups. In this case, the resulting
subsets will be “mirror images” of each other.
• For example, if you randomly assign a convenience sample
of 150 people to three groups of 50 people, the three
groups will be “equivalent” on all known and unknown
variables. In short, random assignment generates similar
groups that can be used in storing experimental research
design.
Determining the Sample
Size When Random
Sampling
• How big shouldis Used
my sample be? A question all
researchers would like to know it’s answer.
• There are four hints that may help us determining
the sample size:
1. Try to get as big of a sample as you can for your
research because the bigger the sample the
better it represents the population.
2. If your population is size 100 units or less, then
include the whole population rather than taking a
sample.
3. Look at other studies in the literature and find out
how many they are selecting.
4. For an exact number, you need to find a model
that calculate such number.
• You will need larger sample in the following
situations:
1. When the population is very heterogeneous.
2. When you want to breakdown the data into multiple
categories.
3. When you want a relatively narrow confidence
interval (e.g., note that the estimate that 80% of IT
managers support a policy plus or minus 4% is more
narrow than the estimate of 80% plus or minus 5%).
4. When you expect a weak relationship or a small
effect.
5. When you use a less efficient technique of random
sampling (e.g., cluster sampling is less efficient than
stratified sampling).
6. When you expect to have a low response rate. The
response rate is the number of people in your sample
who agree to be in your study.
Sampling in Qualitative
Research
• Sampling in qualitative researches is usually
purposive. The general goal is to select
information rich cases.
• There are several specific purposive sampling
techniques that are used in qualitative research:
1. Maximum variation sampling (i.e., you select a
wide range of cases).
2. Homogeneous sample selection (i.e., you select a
small and homogeneous case or set of cases for
intensive study).
3. Extreme case sampling (i.e., you select cases that
represent the extremes on some dimension.
4. Typical-case sampling (i.e., you select
typical or average cases).
5. Critical-case sampling (i.e., select cases
that are known to be very important.
6. Negative-case sampling (i.e., you
purposively select cases that disconfirm
your generalization, so that you can make
sure that you are not just selectively
finding cases to support your personal
theory).
7. Opportunistic sampling (i.e., you select
useful cases as the opportunity arises.
8. Mixed purposeful sampling (i.e., it’s the
mixing of more than one sampling
strategy).