04 格形態論

4.0 Case Morphology

Anyone who has studied German, Latin, Russian, Classical Greek or Sanskrit, is familiar with the concept of Case. Case generally refers to a morphological scheme in which a noun, whether via internal mutation of its phonemes or via affixes, shows what grammatical “role” it plays in the phrase or sentence in which it appears. For example, in the English sentence It was me she saw, the use of the word ‘she’ as opposed to ‘her’ and the use of ‘me’ as opposed to ‘I’ distinguishes the subject of the sentence (the person seeing) from the object of the verb (the one being seen). Similarly, in the German sentence Der Bruder des Knaben sah den Mann (= ‘The boy’s brother saw the man’), the words ‘der’, ‘des’ and ‘den’ distinguish the subject of the sentence ‘brother’ (nominative case) from the possessor ‘boy’ (genitive case) from the object ‘man’ (accusative case).

The concept of “case” can extend far beyond the notions of subject, object and possessor. Depending on the particular language, there may be noun cases which specify the location or position of a noun, whether a noun accompanies another or derives from another or is the recipient of another. In general, noun cases in those languages which rely upon them often substitute for what in English is accomplished using prepositions or prepositional phrases.

There are 68 cases in New Ithkuil, each marked on a formative by a vocalic affix in Slot IX. The individual cases are described below in Sections 4.2 through 4.9. However, before doing so, it will be helpful to first discuss the relationship between case and semantic role, as well as the notion of argument structure.

I

Term

( Cc

Category

Concatenation status indicator

Form

consonantal form consisting of either a glottal stop or a form beginning with -h-.

II

Term

Vv )

Category

Version + Stem

Form

vocalic affix

III

Term

Cr

Category

Main Root

Form

cons. form

IV

Term

Vr

Category

Function + Specification + Context

Form

vocalic affix

V

Term

( CsVx ... )

Category

VxCs affix(es) apply to stem but not to Ca; Form is -CsVx- (i.e., reversed from standard Slot VII VxCs form)

Form

consonant + vowel

VI

Term

Ca

Category

Configuration + Extension + Affiliation + Perspective + Essence

Form

if Slot V is filled, Ca is geminated

VII

Term

( VxCs ... )

Category

VxCs affixes apply to stem + Ca

Form

vowel + consonant

VIII

Term

( VnCn )

Category

Valence OR Aspect OR Phase OR Level OR Effect
Choose one of the five + Mood/Case-Scope

Form

Modular Slot containing a vowel-form + consonant-form

IX

Term

Vc / Vf / Vk

Category

Case OR Format OR Illocution + Validation
as determined by Slot X syllabic stress

Form

vocalic affix

X

Term

[STRESS]

Category

penultimate stress = UNFRAMED Relation +Vc
ultimate stress = UNFRAMED Relation +Vk
antepenultimate stress = FRAMED Relation +Vc

Form

Suprasegmental form

4.1 Semantic Role versus Positional Slot

In most languages, case operates at the surface structure level of language to signify arbitrary grammatical relations such as subject, direct object, indirect object. The deeper level of “semantic role” is ignored in terms of morphological designations. The notion of semantic role can be illustrated by the following set of sentences:

(1a)John opened the door with the key.
(1b)The key opened the door.
(1c)The wind opened the door.
(1d)The door opened.

In each of these sentences case is assigned based on “slot”, i.e., the position of the nouns relative to the verb, irrespective of their semantic roles. Thus, the “subjects” of the sentences are, respectively, John, the key, the wind, and the door. Yet it can be seen that, semantically speaking, these four sentences are interrelated in a causal way. Specifically, Sentence (1b) results directly from sentence (1a), and sentence (1d) results directly from either (1b) or (1c). We see that the case of the noun ‘key’ in sentence (1a) is prepositional, while in sentence (1b) it is the subject. Yet, the key plays the same semantic role in both sentences: the physical instrument by which the act of opening is accomplished. As for the noun ‘door,’ it is marked as a direct object in the first three sentences and as a subject in the fourth, even though its semantic role in all four sentences never changes, i.e., it is the noun which undergoes a change in its state as a result of the act of opening. The noun ‘John’ in sentence (1a) is marked as a subject, the same case as ‘key’ in (1b), the ‘wind’ in (1c) and the ‘door’ in (1d), yet the semantic role of ‘John’ is entirely different from the role of ‘key’ in (1b) and different again from ‘door’ in (1c), i.e., John is acting as the conscious, deliberate initiator of the act of opening. Finally, the noun ‘wind’ in (1c), while marked as a subject, operates in yet another semantic role distinct from the subjects of the other sentences, i.e., an inanimate, blind force of nature which, while being the underlying cause of the act of opening, can make no conscious or willed choice to initiate such action.

4.1.1 Case as Indicator of Semantic Role

The case structures of Western languages mark positional slot (i.e., grammatical relations) only, and have no overt way to indicate semantic role, thus providing no way of showing the intuitive causal relationship between sets of sentences like those above. In New Ithkuil, however, the case of a noun is based on its underlying semantic role, not its syntactic position in the sentence relative to the verb. These semantic roles reflect a more fundamental or primary level of language irrespective of the surface case marking of nouns in other languages. Thus, New Ithkuil noun declension more accurately reflects the underlying semantic function of nouns in sentences.

The following semantic roles are marked by noun cases in New Ithkuil. They correspond roughly to the “subjects” and “objects” of Western languages:

• AGENT（AGENT）: The animate, (and usually conscious and deliberate) initiator of an act which results in another noun undergoing a consequent change in state or behavior, e.g., ‘John’ in Sentence (1a) above.
• FORCE（FORCE）: An inanimate, unwilled cause of an act such as a force of nature like ‘wind’ in Sentence (1c) above.
• INSTRUMENT（INSTRUMENT）: The noun which functions as the physical means or tool by which an act is initiated or performed, e.g., ‘key’ in Sentences (1a) and (1b) above.
• PATIENT（PATIENT）: The noun which undergoes a change in state or behavior as a result of an act initiated or caused by itself or by another noun, e.g., ‘door’ in all four sentences above.

4.1.2 Additional Semantic Roles

Additional semantic roles corresponding to subjects and objects in Western languages exist in New Ithkuil as overt noun cases. These include the roles of ENABLER（ENABLER）, EXPERIENCER（EXPERIENCER）, STIMULUS（STIMULUS）, RECIPIENT（RECIPIENT） and CONTENT（CONTENT）, and are explained below using the following set of sentences as illustrations.

(2a)Mary hits the children.
(2b)Mary entertains the children.
(2c)Mary sees the children.
(2d)Mary tells the children a story.
(2e)Mary wants children.

Examining these five sentences, we notice that the noun Mary is in the subject slot in all of them and the children is the direct object (except in the fourth sentence), even though the semantic roles of both nouns are entirely different in each of these five sentences. Beginning with Sentence (2a) we see that Mary is an AGENT which tangibly causes injury or pain to the children who obviously function in the role of PATIENT. Thus, (2a) is identical to sentence (1a) in terms of the roles portrayed by the subject and direct object.

In Sentence (2b) however, Mary entertains the children, there is a subtle distinction. At first, we might consider Mary an agent who initiates a change in the children (i.e., the fact that they become entertained). But, in fact, the act of entertainment is not one whose result (enjoyment by the audience) can be guaranteed by the party doing the entertaining. In fact, the result of the act of entertainment is not Mary’s to determine, but rather the children’s, based on whether they “feel” a sense of enjoyment at experiencing Mary’s act. And so, Mary is more like a patient here, not an agent, as she is undergoing a change in her state or behavior (she is performing an attempt to entertain) which she herself has chosen to initiate and undergo, yet the act has the potential to cause a resulting change in the children, the success of this motivation to be determined by the children, however, not Mary. Such a semantic role as Mary here is termed an ENABLER. And how do the children make the decision as to whether they are entertained or not (i.e., what is their semantic role?). Can the children deliberately or consciously choose to feel a sense of enjoyment, or are they not themselves unwilling “patients” to their own emotional reactions? In case grammar, a party such as the children who undergo an unwilled experience is termed an EXPERIENCER. Besides emotional reactions, such unwilled experiences include autonomic sensory perceptions (e.g., parties that see or hear because their eyes were open and pointed in a particular direction or who were within earshot of a sound), and autonomic bodily reactions or responses as well as proprioceptive sensations (e.g., coughing, sneezing, perspiring, feeling hot or cold, feeling pain, etc.).

This notion of EXPERIENCER is likewise illustrated by Sentence (2c) Mary sees the children, in which the verb ‘see’ denotes an automatic sensory experience, not a deliberately initiated action. In other words, it is the nature of the sense of sight to function automatically whenever a person is conscious and his/her eyes are open. The verb ‘see’ does not necessarily imply a conscious or deliberately willed action of “seeing” (as would be implied by the verb ‘to look [at]’). Therefore, the “action” is automatic and uninitiated; it is, in fact, not an action at all, but rather an experiential state which the person doing the seeing undergoes. In other words, the person seeing is actually a kind of “patient,” as it is he/she who undergoes the experience of (and physical or emotional reaction to) the particular sight. Such undergoers of sensory verbs and other unwilled states (e.g., emotional states or reactions, autonomic bodily reactions such as sneezing, physical states of sensation such as being hot or cold, etc.) are categorized in the role of EXPERIENCER. And what of the children’s role in sentence (2c)? Unlike the first three sentences, the children do not undergo any action. Certainly the process of “being seen” by Mary does not in itself cause a physical change or reaction of any kind in the entity being seen. Nor can the children be analyzed as “initiating” the act of sight, as they may be completely unaware that Mary is seeing them. As a result, the children’s semantic role is merely that of STIMULUS, a neutral, unwitting originating reason for the experiential state being undergone by the other noun participant.

In Sentence (2d) Mary tells the children a story, Mary is a patient who initiates the action which she herself undergoes, the telling of a story. The children do not undergo an unwilled emotional, sensory, or bodily reaction here, but rather are the passive and more or less willing RECIPIENT of information, the role of an “indirect object” in Western languages. The story, on the other hand, is merely a non-participatory abstract referent, whose role is termed CONTENT.

The role of CONTENT also applies to the children in Sentence (2e) Mary wants children, where they function as the “object” of Mary’s desire. Since no tangible action is occurring, nor are the children undergoing any result of change of state, nor need they be even aware of Mary’s desire, they are, like the story in sentence (2d), merely non-participatory referents. As for Mary’s role in (2e), the emotional state of desire, being unwilled, self-activating, and subjectively internal, creates a situation similar to an automatic sensory perception or autonomic body response; thus, Mary’s role is again that of EXPERIENCER.

4.1.3 Argument Structure

In addition to case being based on semantic roles, New Ithkuil differs in another important respect from natural languages in that it does not have a default argument structure for its verbal formatives. This is explained below.

The individual verbs of natural languages each have an implied argument structure, i.e., a pattern of how nouns (i.e., “arguments”) interact with the particular verb and what formal role (from a morpho-semantic perspective) each of those nouns plays in relation to the verb. For example, the verb ‘hit’ in English implies the existence of an agent (i.e., someone doing the hitting) and a patient (i.e., someone undergoing the effect/result of the hitting), as in ‘He hit the dog.’ A different argument structure is illustrated by the verb ‘give’ which implies an agent doing the giving, a patient undergoing the receiving, and a noun functioning in the semantic role of content, i.e., the item being given/received.

The grammar of natural languages specifies the requirements of which arguments to a verb must be present for a sentence to be grammatical and which arguments are optional. This is illustrated, for example, in the following English sentences (ungrammatical sentences are preceded by an asterisk):

(3a)Sam gave the girl a book.
(3b)Sam gave a book.
(3c)Sam gave.
(3d)*Sam gave the girl. (Intended meaning: Sam gave something to the girl)
(3e)*Gave the girl a book. (Intended meaning: The girl was given a book)
(3f)*Gave the girl. (Intended meaning: The girl was given something)
(3g)*Gave a book. (Intended meaning: Someone gave a book)
(3h)*Gave. (Intended meaning: Someone did some giving or Giving occurred)

In sentence (3a), all three arguments to the verb ‘gave’ are expressed, while in sentence (3b) the patient/recipient has been deleted. Sentence (3c) deletes both the patient/recipient and the CONTENT argument. In sentence (3d) however, when we try to delete the CONTENT argument of book while preserving the patient/recipient, the sentence requires syntactic restructuring into Sam gave [something] to the girl in order to remain grammatical (the asterisk * in front of the sentence indicates it is ungrammatical). Likewise, sentences (3e), (3f), (3g) and (3h) are ungrammatical when we try to delete the agent, as well as either or both of the other two arguments as well, requiring paraphrasing to make the intended meaning grammatical.

Compare the above group of sentences containing the verb ‘gave’ with the sentences below featuring the verb ‘broke’:

(4a)Tim broke the window with a hammer.
(4b)Tim broke the window.
(4c)The hammer broke the window.
(4d)The window broke.
(4e)*The hammer broke. (Intended meaning: The hammer broke something)
(4f)*Tim broke. (Intended meaning: Tim broke something or Tim did some breaking.)

Notice how sentence (3c) above, Sam gave, is grammatical, but the similarly structured sentence (4f) Tim broke is not. Conversely, notice in comparing sentences (4a) and (4d) that the patient window is grammatical in both object and subject slots, but similarly placing the patient girl from sentence (3a) into subject slot gives the ungrammatical sentence *The girl gave (with intended meaning: The girl was given something or Someone gave the girl something.)

Other examples of constraints on argument structure in English are illustrated as follows:

• Bill cut the cake with a knife can be shortened to Bill cut the cake, but the syntactically identical She put the book on the shelf cannot be shortened to *She put the book.

• Treatment healed my wounds can delete its agent to give My wounds healed, but the similar Treatment cured my wounds does not allow agent-deletion to *My wounds cured.

As can be seen, languages such as English are very haphazard in the various constraints on argument structure applied to individual verbs. Sometimes it is possible to delete arguments but at other times doing so results in an ungrammatical sentence, even though a semantically equivalent paraphrase exists. New Ithkuil has no such constraints on its argument structure. As long as a sentence makes sense semantically and the relationships between explicit or implied arguments and their verb can be determined or inferred, then the New Ithkuil sentence will be grammatically permissible. This is possible because its nouns are marked for semantically-based case, as well as the fact that verbs are marked for Function, a category we discussed in Section 3.8 above.

The example sentences above illustrate that the deletion of implied arguments requires a listener/reader to infer the existence of those arguments required for the sentence to make sense semantically. New Ithkuil, like natural languages, allows for such deletion of implied arguments. However, if necessary to avoid ambiguity, or to explicitly indicate the status of such deleted arguments, the language provides an affix to delineate the role of arguments inferred by the listener. This affix, the SIA Status of Inferred Arguments（Status of Inferred Arguments） affix is listed in Sec. 4.2.11 below.

4.2 The Transrelative Cases

The Transrelative cases refer to nine cases used to identify nouns functioning as participants to a verb, what in Western grammatical terms would be referred to as “subjects” and “objects” and most likely marked as either nominative, accusative, or dative. It is these cases which more or less correspond to the semantic roles identified in Sec. 4.1 above. The nine transrelative cases are the THEMATIC, INSTRUMENTAL, ABSOLUTIVE, AFFECTIVE, STIMULATIVE, EFFECTUATIVE, ERGATIVE, DATIVE, and INDUCIVE. Following are explanations of the function and usage of each case. Examples of these cases in use are provided in Sec. 4.2.10 below.

4.2.1 THM The Thematic Case

The THEMATIC case is marked by the Vc affix -a in Slot IX of a formative. It indicates the (usually inanimate) party which is a participant to the verbal predicate where that participant does not undergo any tangible change of state. Its semantic role is that of CONTENT, as described earlier in Sec. 4.1.2.

4.2.2 INS The Instrumental Case

The INSTRUMENTAL case is marked by the Vc affix -ä in Slot IX of a formative. It indicates the entity acting as means utilized by an explicit or implicit agent to implement/carry out the effect/impact of an act/event. Its semantic role is that of INSTRUMENT, as described earlier in Sec. 4.1.1.

4.2.3 ABS The Absolutive Case

The ABSOLUTIVE case is marked by the Vc affix -e in Slot IX of a formative. It indicates the party that is the target of, or undergoes, the effect/impact or change of state as a result of a tangible act/event. Its semantic role is that of PATIENT, as described earlier in Sec. 4.1.1.

4.2.4 AFF The Affective Case

The AFFECTIVE case is marked by the Vc affix -i in Slot IX of a formative. It indicates the party who undergoes an unwilled, affective experience, e.g., coughing, sneezing, feeling hot/cold, trembling, experiencing sensory input (tactile, olfactory, visual, aural, gustatory), proprioceptive states, psychological/emotional states, reflex reactions such as cringing, yawning, ducking, screaming in fright, etc. Its semantic role is that of EXPERIENCER, as described earlier in Sec. 4.1.2.

4.2.5 STM The Stimulative Case

The STIMULATIVE case is marked by the Vc affix -ëi in Slot IX of a formative. It indicates the party/entity/idea/thought/situation or mental state which triggers an unwilled, affective response or is the trigger for an existential states with no tangibly affected patient, e.g., The hammer exemplifies toolship, The man possesses a cat, That book contains poems. Its semantic role is that of STIMULUS, as described earlier in Sec. 4.1.2.

4.2.6 EFF The Effectuative Case

The EFFECTUATIVE case is marked by the Vc affix -ö in Slot IX of a formative. It indicates the party/force that initiates a chain of causal events or who induces another party to act as an agent. Note that the exact nature of the enablement is specifiable via the ENB affix described in the Affixes document. Its semantic role is that of ENABLER, as described earlier in Sec. 4.1.2.

4.2.7 ERG The Ergative Case

The ERGATIVE case is marked by the Vc affix -o in Slot IX of a formative. It indicates the animate party or inanimate force which initiates/causes an act/event which creates a tangible effect or change of state in a patient. Its semantic role is that of AGENT or FORCE, as described earlier in Sec. 4.1.1.

4.2.8 DAT The Dative Case

The DATIVE case is marked by the Vc affix -ü in Slot IX of a formative. Its semantic role is that of RECIPIENT, as described earlier in Sec. 4.1.2, indicating the party which is the (intended) recipient of a verb of transference, transmission, or communication. Examples: Give the dog a bone, I’ll tell her your secret, The host introduced me to the guests.

4.2.9 IND The Inducive Case

The INDUCIVE case is marked by the Vc affix -u in Slot IX of a formative. Its semantic role is that of simultaneous AGENT and PATIENT, as described earlier in Sec. 4.1.1, indicating the patient who undergoes the tangible effect, impact, or change of state of an act/event initiated/caused by that self-same party. Examples: The boys run in the playground, We talked for hours, The couple eats dinner.

4.2.10 Examples of the Transrelative Cases in Use

The following are examples of various New Ithkuil sentences showing how assigning different Transrelative cases to the noun participants (i.e., the arguments to the verb) allows for various changes in meaning, regardless of argument structure. As can be seen, the English translations of many of these sentences often require word order changes, word-substitution, even outright paraphrase, all in order to accommodate the constraints on English argument structure.

関連情報

The categories of Function and Version are detailed in Chapter 5.

4.2.11 Specialized Affixes Used to Expand the Functionality of the Transrelative Cases

It should be noted that New Ithkuil provides an array of Slot V or Slot VII affixes specifically designed to work in conjunction with nouns inflected into one of the Transrelative cases to significantly expand their ability to specify the exact nature of the causal relationships between participants to a verb in an Ithkuil sentence. These affixes include the CNS Consent（Consent） affix, the RSN Reason（Reason） affix, the XPT Expectation（Expectation） affix, the DLB Deliberateness（Deliberateness） affix, the ENB Enablement（Enablement） affix, the AGN Agency/Intent（Agency/Intent） affix, and the IMP Impact（Impact） affix. These affixes are shown below (see Chapter 7 for a discussion on the morpho-phonological structure of Slot V and Slot VII Affixes).

CNS

-řs | CNS | Degree of Consent（Degree of Consent）

1. deliberately against the expressed wishes/will of the affected party
2. without the affected party’s knowledge and against their implied/presumed wishes/will
3. without the consent or knowledge of the affected party [their expressed or implied wishes/will being unknown or undetermined]
4. with the affected party’s knowledge but without their consent
5. with the affected party’s consent obtained under pressure, threat, coercion
6. with the affected party’s reluctant consent
7. with the affected party’s full consent, willingly
8. with the affected party’s enthusiastic approval and support
9. by request of the affected party

RSN

-cb | RSN | Reason for an Emotional State or Motivation for an Action（Reason for an Emotional State or Motivation for an Action）

1. for no reason
2. for foolish or naïve reason
3. out of curiosity/to see what happens
4. in defense/for protection
5. to provoke/elicit reaction
6. to entice
7. to show appreciation
8. for appropriate reasons / for good reason
9. for virtuous, healthy/beneficial reason

DLB

-rj | DLB | Degree of Deliberateness/Agency（Degree of Deliberateness/Agency）

1. accidental(ly) / inadvertent(ly) and unaware of consequences
2. unintended / unintentional(ly) / without meaning to and unaware of consequences
3. accidental(ly) / inadvertent(ly) but now aware of consequences
4. unintended / unintentional(ly) / without meaning to but now aware of consequences
5. unforeseeable / unpredictable; unforeseeably / unpredictably
6. without realizing or considering potential consequences
7. thinking one can get away without reaping consequences / furtive(ly)
8. realizing potential risks or consequences / cognizant of potential risks or consequences
9. intentional(ly) / deliberate(ly) / on purpose / by choice; choose to

XPT

-řš | XPT | Expectation of Outcome（Expectation of Outcome）

1. shockingly unexpected; without precedent or rumour
2. surprise X / unexpected X; completely by surprise/ completely unexpected(ly)
3. manage to X despite inadequacy of preparation or effort; harder than thought to be due to poor planning and/or execution
4. manage to X despite underestimating hindrances or obstacles; harder than initially thought to be
5. managed to X despite hindrance(s) or obstacles; hard-won
6. manage to X due to hindrances or obstacles being overestimated; easier than thought to be
7. manage to X due to excellent preparation / planning / execution
8. completely as expected / totally as anticipated / as predicted
9. pat; outcome pre-ordained or predetermined

ENB

-mš | ENB | Means of Enablement（Means of Enablement）

1. by inadvertent gesture/word/sign taken as order or permission
2. by granting of permission
3. by cajoling or persuasion
4. by direct request or imploring
5. by direct order based on one’s real or perceived authority
6. by inadvertent removal of hindrance
7. by inadvertent action that initiates a chain of events
8. by deliberate removal of hindrance
9. by deliberate action that initiates a chain of events

IMP

-řň | IMP | Degree of Impact on Patient/Target or Enablement of Outcome（Degree of Impact on Patient/Target or Enablement of Outcome）

1. target can do nothing - utterly inevitable
2. target chooses to do nothing - resigned to fate
3. target tries to prevent/avoid but fails
4. target tries to prevent/avoid and does so partially or mitigates impact somewhat
5. target tries to prevent/avoid and succeeds
6. target helps/enables outcome inadvertently
7. target helps/enables outcome against own interest (i.e., without thinking)
8. target helps/enables outcome intentionally despite negative consequences
9. target helps/enables outcome intentionally for own benefit

AGN

-nř | AGN | Degree of Agency, Intent or Effectiveness（Degree of Agency, Intent or Effectiveness）

1. with the anticipated max. resulting effect possible
2. with the anticipated resulting effect to a high degree
3. with the anticipated resulting effect to a moderate degree
4. with the anticipated resulting effect but only to a marginal, superficial or barely noticeable degree
5. with no noticeable effect or resulting change
6. with only marginal, superficial, or barely noticeable effect or resulting change unanticipated
7. with moderate effect or resulting change — unanticipated
8. with the resulting effect to a high degree — unanticipated
9. with the max. resulting effect possible — unanticipated

SIA

-lč | SIA | Status of Inferred Arguments（Status of Inferred Arguments）

1. Only explicitly stated arguments are implied; no unstated arguments should be inferred
2. Only logically required arguments are implied or should be inferred (e.g., a STIMULUS for a state of external sensory input, a RECIPIENT for an act of transferring possession); unstated arguments that are logically unnecessary but possible should not be inferred
3. Logically required arguments should be inferred; logically unnecessary but possible arguments (e.g., INSTRUMENTAL, SITUATIVE, DEPENDENT, or Temporal) may be inferred
4. Logically unnecessary but possible arguments may be inferred; logically required arguments are ONLY those explicitly stated
5. OK to infer an affective STIMULUS only; no other unstated arguments implied
6. OK to infer an ERG or EFF agent only; no other unstated arguments implied
7. OK to infer a temporal context/argument plus any logically required arguments
8. OK to infer an INSTRUMENTAL argument plus any logically required arguments
9. OK to infer a SITUATIVE or a DEPENDENT argument (i.e., a context describable via the SITUATIVE or DEPENDENT case or Case-Frame) plus any logically required arguments

4.2.12 Use of the CHC Affix with Transrelative Cases

This affix is used to specify the exact semantic relationships between the participants to verbs such as “eat” and “sing” where case-marking alone is insufficient to describe the exact nature of the participants’ enablement of an action.

-rz | CHC | Degree of Choice by Externally-Induced Agent（Degree of Choice by Externally-Induced Agent）

operates like the existing IMP affix except that the party is the Agent of an externally-induced or externally-enabled (i.e., EFFECTUATIVE) act, rather than the Patient of an agential act

1. party made/induced by another party/force/situation to initiate a(n) state/act/event - can do nothing to stop it, initiation is inevitable
2. party made/induced by another party/force/situation to initiate a(n) state/act/event - chooses to acquiesce due to being okay with, or indifferent as to outcome
3. party made/induced by another party/force/situation to initiate a(n) state/act/event - tries to prevent/avoid but fails
4. party made/induced by another party/force/situation to initiate a(n) state/act/event - tries to avoid and partially succeeds/mitigates impact
5. party made/induced by another party/force/situation to initiate a(n) state/act/event - tries to prevent/avoid and succeeds
6. party made/induced by another party/force/situation to initiate a(n) state/act/event - inadvertently helps/enables outcome
7. party made/induced by another party/force/situation to initiate a(n) state/act/event - acquiesces/helps/enables outcome against own interest w/o thinking
8. party made/induced by another party/force/situation to initiate a(n) state/act/event - intentionally acquiesces/helps/enables outcome consciously against own interest
9. party made/induced by another party/force/situation to initiate a(n) state/act/event - intentionally acquiesces/helps/enables outcome for own benefit

Example:

4.2.13 Using the Transrelative Cases to Achieve “Middle Voice” Semantic Effects

English (among other languages) allows some of its verbs to operate both transitively (i.e., taking a direct object) as well as intransitively (i.e., without a direct object), where the object of the transitive sentence becomes the subject of the intransitive sentence. Furthermore, the intransitive sentence describes the same potential event as the transitive version does, except that no agent is expressed, the focus of the sentence being on the result, not the act which gives rise to the result. Examples:

The manager opened the store at 8 a.m
>>The store opened at 8 a.m

Robert flies the airplane beautifully
>>The airplane flies beautifully

The engineer increased the pressure
>>The pressure increased

I molded the soft clay easily
>>The soft clay molded easily

Note that the second sentence of each pair above is semantically distinct from its passive voice equivalent (i.e., The store was opened at 8 a.m, The airplane is flown beautifully, The pressure was increased, The soft clay was molded easilyin that passives allow for the agent to be overtly stated (using the preposition ‘by’ in English, as in The store was opened by the manager) or, if absent, nevertheless imply the existence of the agent). However, the intransitive sentences above (equivalent to “middle voice” constructions is languages such as Swahili or Turkish) do not allow for expression of an agent and are designed to suppress the semantic relevance (or saliency) of the agent.

However, English is very haphazard and idiosyncratic as to what verbs it allows to operate this way, often having to resort to paraphrase and idiomatic structures to accomplish the same effects as in the four intransitive sentences above. For example [ungrammatical sentences are preceded by an asterisk]:

Father painted the fence yellow
*The fence painted yellow
(But: The fence came out yellow)

I noticed a storm on the horizon
*A storm noticed on the horizon
(But: A storm came into view on the horizon)

The owner keeps scissors with the sewing supplies
*Scissors keep with the sewing supplies
(But: Scissors belong/stay with the sewing supplies)

Fans buy beer a lot at baseball games
*Beer buys a lot at baseball games
(But: Beer sells a lot at baseball games)

Of course, many English speakers would simply use the passive voice or a construction using ‘get’ to accomplish the same thing without worrying about the existence of an implied agent. Examples:

• The fence was/got painted yellow
• A storm was noticed on the horizon
• The scissors are/get kept with the sewing supplies
• Beer is/gets bought a lot at baseball games

Many languages utilize reflexive constructions to accomplish this effect, e.g., Spanish Se habla español aquí, literally “Spanish speaks itself here,” meaning Spanish is spoken here.

New Ithkuil, however, can manipulate the assignment of case to verb arguments to achieve this “middle voice” effect for any verb where it is semantically feasible, without having to resort to idiomatic constructions or paraphrase. For example:

Yantxečmehá

“chew”-DIF₁/3-REP

aţpwato.

“snail”-MSS-ERG

The snails chew easily.
[meaning: It is easy for the snails to chew things.]

versus:

Yantxečmehá

“chew”-DIF₁/3-REP

aţpwate.

“snail”-MSS-ABS

The snails chew easily.
[meaning: It is easy to chew (on) the snails.]

4.3 The Appositive Cases

Those Western languages which have possessive cases usually have only one such case, often functioning in a vague and ambiguous way to show varying types of relationships between two nouns. For example, notice the differing relationships expressed by the possessive in the following English sentences:

• the man’s hat
  = the hat belonging to him alienable possession（alienable possession）
• the man’s house
  = the house he legally owns proprietary responsibility（proprietary responsibility）
• the man’s arm
  = part of his body inalienable component（inalienable component）
• the man’s brother
  = the brother related to him genetic relationship（genetic relationship）
• the man’s happiness
  = he feels happy affective experience（affective experience）
• the man’s rescue
  = he was or will be rescued target of othersʼ purpose（target of othersʼ purpose）
• the man’s gift
  = the gift is for him benefaction（benefaction）
• the man’s gift
  = the gift is from him source（source）
• the man’s world
  = the world in which he lives inherent subjective association（inherent subjective association）
• the man’s team
  = the team he is associated with interactive mutual association（interactive mutual association）
• the man’s story
  = the story about him topical reference（topical reference）
• the man’s painting
  = the picture he painted creation/authorship（creation/authorship）
• the man’s command
  = his being a commander role or function（role or function）

In many instances, the English possessive is totally ambiguous, e.g., does ‘the man’s story’ mean the one he wrote or the one about him? Regarding ‘the man’s rescue,’ did the man do the rescuing or is he the one being rescued? Is ‘the man’s gift’ one he is giving or receiving? New Ithkuil is more exact in specifying the nature of these relationships via case. Many of the above relationships are addressed by the nine Appositive cases and still others by the nine Associative cases presented in Sec. 4.4.

The Appositive cases make a distinction between alienable versus inalienable possession or attribution, as well as distinguishing whether the possession is inherent to the possessor or imposed or caused from without. These distinctions are explained below. Like Western languages (and unlike many American Indian and North Caucasian languages), the case marking is on the possessor noun, not the possessed. The nine Appositive cases are the POSSESSIVE, PROPRIETIVE, GENITIVE, ATTRIBUTIVE, PRODUCTIVE, INTERPRETATIVE, ORIGINATIVE, INTERDEPENDENT and PARTITIVE. Following are explanations of the function and usage of each case.

4.3.1 POS The Possessive Case

The POSSESSIVE case is marked by the Vc affix -ai in formative Slot IX. The POSSESSIVE is used to refer to a noun which has alienable (i.e., removable or severable) possession of another noun in the sense of having physical control or oversight of that noun, whether by chance circumstance or deliberate manipulation. The two nouns are not in any sense inherent parts of one another and the relationship between the two can be theoretically or actually terminated by an outside force or influence, or by decision of the possessor, usually by means of mere physical permanent separation of the possessor and possessed nouns. The Possessive would be used to translate English phrases such as his coat (e.g., the one he is wearing, regardless of whether he owns it or not), the boy’s book (e.g., the one in his hand), Father’s chair (e.g., the one he happens to be sitting in, as in a restaurant).

kštala

“chair”-[default Ca]-THM

wampeicai

[default Ca]-“parent”-GID₂/3-POS

father’s chair
[i.e., the one he’s sitting in]

4.3.2 PRP The Proprietive Case

The PROPRIETIVE case is marked by the Vc affix -au in formative Slot IX. The PROPRIETIVE identifies a noun having alienable possession of another noun in the sense of quasi-permanent contextual control, ownership or oversight, whether by societal recognition, social convention, law, purchase or decree, which mere physical separation does not sever. The two nouns are not in any sense inherent parts of one another, however the relationship cannot be terminated except via an equally or more binding act, declaration, convention, law, process, etc. Using the same English examples used with the POSSESSIVE above, we can analyze the connotative difference: his coat (i.e., the one he owns, regardless of whether he is wearing it or not), the boy’s book (e.g., the one he bought), Father’s chair (e.g., the one quasi-permanently assigned to him).

onţläla

Stem.0-“automobile”-CTE-[default Ca]-THM

wampeicau

[default Ca]-“parent”-GID₂/3-PRP

father’s car

4.3.3 GEN The Genitive Case

The GENITIVE case is marked by the Vc affix -ei in formative Slot IX. The GENITIVE is used to refer to a noun which has inalienable (i.e., unremovable, unseverable) possession of or association with another noun in the sense of having that noun as an inherent or intrinsic attribute, characteristic, physical part, or genetic (i.e., familial) bond, e.g., my hand, the building’s doors, the child’s father, the essence of that woman.

walţa

“pellicle”-THM

enžtalekcei

“peach.tree”-EPP₁/3-GEN

the skin of a peach

walža

“face”-THM

kšilei

“clown”-GEN

the clown’s face

4.3.4 ATT The Attributive Case

The ATTRIBUTIVE case is marked by the Vc affix -eu in formative Slot IX. The ATTRIBUTIVE is used to refer to a noun which inalienably experiences the effects of, or otherwise has an affective (see the AFFECTIVE case above) relationship with another noun, either as a temporary or permanent attribute, characteristic, or experience, whether physical or psychological, objective or subjective in nature. Examples: his pain, Mother’s guilt, the child’s cough, Dorothy’s mood, Davey’s happiness, the teacher’s stubbornness, my needs.

mřřala

“grief”-THM

weleu

child-ATT

the child’s grief

yuäčla

A-“deviousness”-THM

kšileu

“clown”-ATT

the clown’s deviousness

4.3.5 PDC The Productive Case

The PRODUCTIVE case is marked by the Vc affix -ëu in formative Slot IX. The PRODUCTIVE identifies the creator, author or originator of another noun, e.g., the girl’s poem, the clowns’ plan, my statue (i.e., the one I sculpted).

eňalţra

“written.composition”-ASO/MDS/G

wampacëu

“parent”-GID₁/1-PDC

mother’s writings

4.3.6 ITP The Interpretative Case

The INTERPRETATIVE case is marked by the Vc affix -ou in Formative Slot IX. The INTERPRETATIVE identifies a noun acting as the subjective interpretational context of another noun, that is the noun by or through which another noun is subjectively interpreted or described, as exemplified by the phrases Monet’s Paris, our world, life as seen/experienced by children.

yerla

PRX-“subjective.viewpoint”-THM

kšilou

“clown”-ITP

the clown’s point of view

4.3.7 OGN The Originative Case

The ORIGINATIVE case is marked by the Vc affix -oi in formative Slot IX. The ORIGINATIVE identifies a noun as being the literal or figurative source of another, or which is the native location, origin, or usual locational context for another, e.g., the man’s story (i.e., the one he told), our gift (i.e., the one we are giving), water from the river, the fruit of the tree, Fix the kitchen sink! (i.e. the one found in the kitchen), Desert rocks are so beautiful (i.e., whether being spoken about rocks taken from the desert or rocks still present in the desert), Northern women are easy-going.

The ORIGINATIVE should be distinguished from the ABLATIVE in Sec. 4.8.4 below, in that the ABLATIVE signifies position or path of motion away from, whereas the ORIGINATIVE merely presents a locational context as a means of description or to distinguish the noun from an otherwise similar noun.

ekcatra

“fruit”-MSS/G-THM

walḑoi

“tree”-OGN

the fruits of a tree

4.3.8 IDP The Interdependent Case

The INTERDEPENDENT case is marked by the Vc affix -iu in formative Slot IX. The INTERDEPENDENT identifies a noun which has a coordinated, tandem, complementary or mutually dependent relationship with another. The relationship between the two nouns can be thought of as reciprocal in nature, i.e., each noun implies the other or needs the other to exist within its natural context, e.g., the students’ teacher, an army general, the blood in my veins, the driver of the truck, the nation’s leader, his team (i.e., the one on which he’s a member). Note that this case does not imply a part-whole dependency as with the GENITIVE case above, e.g., it would not be used to translate the book’s pages, or the leaves of a tree.

wailpla

G-“blood”-THM

endyaftioriu

“vein”-MDC/PRX-GEN/1m/BEN-IDP

the blood in my veins

4.3.9 PAR The Partitive Case

The PARTITIVE case is marked by the Vc affix -ui in formative Slot IX. The PARTITIVE indicates a quantitative or content-to-container relationship between the two nouns, e.g., a cup of coffee, a box(ful) of books, a train(load) of refugees.

The PARTITIVE is also used to mark a noun qualified by a specific number, e.g., three boxes, two clowns, twenty words. This usage described in Sec. 13.4, where we will see that, in New Ithkuil, numbers are formatives (i.e., full nouns and verbs), not adjectives as in Western languages. Additionally, a noun qualified by a number is not pluralized. In other words, one does not say ‘three boxes,’ but rather “a trio of a box” or perhaps more eloquently, “a box trio.”

unţwäla

“bus”-THM

kšiţui

“clown”-MDS-PAR

a busload of clowns

4.4 The Associative Cases

The Associative cases refer to a group of nine cases which modify a formative to show that it has and adjectival relationship to another, usually adjacent formative. Most of these cases correspond to relationships in which, in English translation, we find two nouns together in apposition or as a compound noun, as in cat box, schoolbook, peace march, mountain man, etc., or joined by the word ‘of’ in a non-possessive relationship, e.g., dreams of youth, sounds of laughter, or as a modifier of a verbal phrase. The nine Associative cases are the APPLICATIVE, PURPOSIVE, TRANSMISSIVE, DEFERENTIAL, CONTRASTIVE, TRANSPOSITIVE, COMMUTATIVE, COMPARATIVE, and CONSIDERATIVE. Following are explanations of the function and usage of each case.

4.4.1 APL The Applicative Case

The APPLICATIVE case is marked by the Vc affix -ia (or -uä if immediately preceded by -y-) in formative Slot IX. The APPLICATIVE identifies a noun which represents the purpose for which another noun is to be utilized in a given instance. As such, it usually translates English ‘for’ when meaning ‘for the temporary or incidental use/purpose of.’ Examples of usage would be a cup for coffee (i.e., a cup being used incidentally to hold coffee), a box for tools (i.e., the box is only temporarily being used to hold tools), a room for changing. Note that the use of the APPLICATIVE can extend to usages beyond English ‘for,’ as in a “weapon” cat = ‘a cat used as a weapon,’ or a “projectile” book = ‘a book used as a projectile.

rrala

“cat”-THM

udklälia

“projectile.weapon”-CTE-APL

a cat for use as a projectile weapon

4.4.2 PUR The Purposive Case

The PURPOSIVE case is marked by the Vc affix -ie (or -uë if immediately preceded by -y-) in formative Slot IX. The PURPOSIVE identifies a noun which characterizes or defines the purpose of, or reason for, another noun. The PURPOSIVE is subtly distinct from the APPLICATIVE above, in that the latter names the actual use to which a noun is put on a given occasion or in given context, whereas the PURPOSIVE defines another noun’s dedicated function or primary reason for being, outside of any contextual instance, i.e., what the noun is used for all the time (or at least its intended use). It generally translates English ‘as,’ ‘of’ or ‘for’ when meaning ‘for the purpose of’ or alternately an English noun-noun expression or a compound noun. Examples of usage would be a coffee cup, a __tool__box, a litter box, a __trash__can.

skela

“container/receptacle”-CSV-THM

agçiţrie

“trash/garbage”-OBJ-MDS/G-PUR

a trashcan / a garbage bin

4.4.3 TRA The Transmissive Case

The TRANSMISSIVE case is marked by the Vc affix -io (or -üä if immediately preceded by -y-) in formative Slot IX. The TRANSMISSIVE identifies a noun for whose sake or benefit an action or event occurs or is done or the party to whose detriment an action or event occurs. As such, the TRANSMISSIVE is similar to the DATIVE, except that the TRANSMISSIVE implies a strong emphasis on the fact that the noun is more than simply the recipient or target of a dative action, but rather either benefits or is affected detrimentally in a tangible or consequential way from the action or event. It is usually translated by English ‘for’ in the sense of ‘for the sake (i.e., benefit) of.’ Examples of usage are a toy for the children, We threw him a party, Go to the teachers’ lounge, I’ll be inspecting the prisoners’ cells.

utxala

“drink”-THM

welio

“child”-TRA

a drink for the child

4.4.4 DFR The Deferential Case

The DEFERENTIAL case is marked by the VC affix -iö (or -üë if immediately preceded by -y-) in formative Slot IX. The DEFERENTIAL translates the English phrases ‘out of respect for,’ ‘for the sake of,’ or ‘in deference toward,’ identifying the noun to which deference is paid within the context for an act, condition, or event. Examples of usage would be He remained silent for her sake, They went on with the ceremony out of respect for the families, They dressed in robes because of tradition.

ujtajiö

tradition-A-DFR

out of respect for tradition

4.4.5 CRS The Contrastive Case

The CONTRASTIVE case is marked by the Vc affix -eë in formative Slot IX. The CONTRASTIVE identifies a noun which has been replaced by another or for which another noun has been substituted. This is translatable by the English phrases ‘instead of’ or ‘rather than’ or ‘as opposed to,’ or specialized uses of ‘not,’ e.g., Instead of rain, it snowed; They hired her as a cook, as opposed to a maid; I prefer peas to carrots; Rather than marigolds, let’s buy carnations; That’s sugar, not salt.

Wat

[default Ca]-“be.what.is.under.discussion”-PRX-(OBS)

alcmar

“sugar”-G-(THM)

afdareë.

“salt”-G-CRS

It’s sugar, not salt.

4.4.6 TSP The Transpositive Case

The TRANSPOSITIVE case is marked by the Vc affix -uö (or -öë if immediately preceded by -w-) in formative Slot IX. The TRANSPOSITIVE implies substitution of one noun for another. It translates English ‘for’ in the sense of ‘on behalf of,’ ‘in place of,’ or ‘instead of’ (i.e., ‘as a substitution for’). Examples of usage are The boss made the speech for me, She went up into the attic for her brother (i.e., so he wouldn’t have to).

Xpulá

“act.of.substitution”-DYN-OBS

kšilo

“clown”-ERG

waigvbre

G-“methane”-ABS

waiňnuö.

“oxygen”-G-TSP

The clown is substituting methane for oxygen.

Revisor’s Comment

• xpulá x-ERG y-ABS z-TSP

x replaces y for z = x replaces z with y

• xpulá x-ERG y-ABS

x replaces y for something = x replaces something with y

• xpulá x-ABS y-TSP

x is replaced with y

• xpulá x-ERG y-TSP

x replaces something for something on behalf of y

Here y’s TSP case associates only with the immediately preceding x

• xpulá x-ERG [mi+N]​-ABS y-TSP

x replaces something for y

• xpulá x-IND y-TSP

x takes place of y.

• xpulá x-ERG+TSP y-ABS

x gives place to y

Here x’s TSP case associates only with the immediately following y

4.4.7 CMM The Commutative Case

The COMMUTATIVE case is marked by the Vc affix -uo (or -öä if immediately preceded by -w-) in formative Slot IX. The COMMUTATIVE translates English ‘for’ in the sense of ‘in exchange for’ as in You paid too much money for that dress, She kills for thrills.

Weščayá

“pay.money”-RTR-OBS

ampasu

“parent”-DPX-IND

hakšilaölwie-addyabzëuttuo

CONCATENATED:“clown”-TFM-PUR-PARENT:“teacher/student.complementary.interaction”-FEA₂/5-MSS-CMM

welio.

“child”-TRA

The parents paid for the child’s clown lessons.

4.4.8 CMP The Comparative Case

The COMPARATIVE case is marked by the Vc affix -ue (or -ië if immediately preceded by -w-) in formative Slot IX. The COMPARATIVE identifies a noun being compared to another. It translates such expressions as ‘as compared to,’ or certain usages of ‘versus’ or ‘as opposed to.’ It is similar to the CONTRASTIVE case (see Section 4.4.5 above), except that it does not carry the sense of opposition, joint exclusivity, or either-or binary substitution of the CONTRASTIVE, but rather merely comparison/choice/preference from various options or along a spectrum or scale. With verbal Case-Frames (see Sec. 6.2) it would translate as ‘whereas’ or ‘while’ (in its synonymous usage to ‘whereas’). Examples are She chose the red one as opposed to the others, Sam drives a van versus Joe, who prefers a truck.

Amsävá

“taste.sweet”-CTE-N-OBS

wialcma

N-“sugar”-THM

afdavue.

“salt”-N-CMP

Sugar is sweet compared to salt.

Note that the COMPARATIVE case is also used with the morphological category of Level, discussed in Sec. 5.5..

4.4.9 CSD The Considerative Case

The CONSIDERATIVE case is marked by the Vc affix -ua (or -iä if immediately preceded by -w-) in formative Slot IX. It translates English terms such as ‘according to,’ ‘in the opinion of.’ Examples of usage would be In my opinion he’s a coward; According to our teacher, humans are descended from apes.

eddyilua

Stem.2-“teach”-OBJ-[default Ca]-CSD

according to the teacher

4.5 Adverbial Cases

Similar the Associative cases above, the Adverbial cases are a group of nine cases which modify a formative to show it has an adverbial relationship to another, usually adjacent formative. The nine Adverbial cases are the FUNCTIVE, TRANSFORMATIVE, CLASSIFICATIVE, RESULTATIVE, CONSUMPTIVE, CONCESSIVE, AVERSIVE, CONVERSIVE, and SITUATIVE.

4.5.1 FUN The Functive Case

The FUNCTIVE case is marked by the Vc affix -ao in formative Slot IX. It functions similarly to English adverbs ending in -ly or the adverbial use of with, identifying the manner in which an action, event, or state occurs or exists. More exactly, it identifies a noun used to characterize the manner of the act, state, or event, translatable most accurately by the phrase ‘in a manner characterized by….’ Examples would be: She dances gracefully (i.e., in a manner characterized by grace), The boys ate with gusto, That clown is speaking nonsense, Father speaks with such fortitude.

Wamá

“speak”-OBS

kšilu

“clown”-OBJ-IND

wiamfmavügao.

“act.of.assurance”-N-EXN₁/8-FUN

The clown speaks most assuredly.

4.5.2 TFM The Transformative Case

The TRANSFORMATIVE case is marked by the Vc affix -aö in formative Slot IX. The TRANSFORMATIVE identifies the outcome or final state of a process, often translatable by ‘to,’ ‘until,’ or ‘into’ in the sense of reaching a final state after having undergone some transformation. Example usages would be The house burned to ashes, The clown reached a state of tranquility, The clowns will turn our children into slaves, Her father drank himself to death.

Weščayá

“pay.money”-RTR-OBS

ampasu

“parent”-DPX-IND

hakšilaölwie-addyëubzattuo

CONCATENATED:“clown”-TFM-PUR-Parent:“teacher/student.complementary.interaction”-FEA₂/5-MSS-TSP

welio.

“child”-TRA

The parents paid for the child’s clown lessons.
[LITERALLY: ‘the parents paid for lessons-for-becoming-a-clown for the child’]

4.5.3 CLA The Classificative Case

The CLASSIFICATIVE case is marked by the Vc affix -eo. The CLASSIFICATIVE identifies a noun as a basis for arranging, sorting, classifying, or counting, translating various English prepositions and phrases used for this purpose. Example of usage are Place them in groups of three, The workers arranged the tables in rows, He lay down lengthwise, Can you count by fives?, I will sort them by color.

The CLASSIFICATIVE is also used to identify a noun considered in consecutively recurring increments as a means of describing the manner of an event. Examples: The fertilizer factory keeps rolling them out, bag upon bag; Patient by patient, the nurse administered injections; One bomb after another fell on the city. When used with time periods, however, it is more usual to utilize the SELECTIVE case (see Sec. 4.7.5), however CLASSIFICATIVE can be used instead to emphasize the repetitive nature of an event. Examples would be Month by month, their departure crept closer; Year after year, I see more and more clowns; Day in, day out, he’s always working.

wajneo

“length.of.object”-CLA

lengthwise

Erčuläyá

“corrupt”-DYN-PRS-OBS

kšivo

“clown”-N-ERG

weleo.

“child”-CLA

The clowns will corrupt child after child.

4.5.4 RSL The Resultative Case

The RESULTATIVE case is marked by the Vc affix -eö. The RESULTATIVE identifies a result or consequence, usually translatable utilizing a clause-like structure in English. Examples: He smoked since his teenage years, hence his early death; The girl has studied for years, making her an expert, Clowns have secretly infiltrated our schools, the consequence being our corrupt children; The team made several errors during the game, resulting in a loss.

wadpweö

“act.of.blackmail”-RSL

resulting in (an act of) blackmail

4.5.5 CSM The Consumptive Case

The CONSUMPTIVE case is marked by the Vc affix -oë. The CONSUMPTIVE identifies the resource consumed or used (up) as a result of, or as a concurrent part of a process. Examples: She cooks with tomatoes, The clown fed her an apple, He reads by candle(light).

Elkswuvá

“cook.seafood”-DYN-N-OBS

wampacu

“parent”-GID₁/1-IND

aţmwaroë.

G-“wine”-CSM

Mother cooks seafood with wine.

4.5.6 CON The Concessive Case

The CONCESSIVE case is marked by the Vc affix -öe. The CONCESSIVE case identifies a noun, situation, or circumstance which gives rise to an expectation of a certain result which, in fact, does not occur. This can be translated by various English prepositions, conjunctions, or phrases such as ‘despite,’ ‘in spite of,’ ‘notwithstanding,’ ‘although,’ ‘regardless of,’ ‘no matter what,’ etc. Examples of usage: In spite of his stupidity, he passed the test; The law notwithstanding, I will stand my ground; No matter how ignorant (they may be), they are welcome, Although foreigners, we will let them attend the meeting.

wardplitöe

“act.of.embezzlement”-DCD₁/4-CON

in spite of that (act of) embezzlement

4.5.7 AVR The Aversive Case

The AVERSIVE case is marked by the Vc affix -oe. The AVERSIVE identifies a noun as a source or object of fear and/or avoidance. With nouns, it translates expressions such as ‘for fear of,’ ‘in order to avoid,’ or ‘in avoidance of.’ With verb phrases (i.e., Case-Frames; see Sec. 6.2), it would translate English ‘lest.’ Examples of usage are She finished her plate for fear of my wrath, I traveled by night to avoid the sun.

Wiamftrá

N-“engage.in.drinking.contest”-OBS

ru

1m/DET-IND

avtyävairxoe.

“state.of.chemical.intoxication”-N-SIM₂/1-AVR

I engage in drinking contests out of fear of sobriety.

4.5.8 CVS The Conversive Case

The CONVERSIVE case is marked by the Vc affix -öa. The CONVERSIVE is used in conjunction with hypothetical or potential contexts to identify a hypothetical exception to a potential outcome or an actual circumstance which alters or has altered a potential outcome. This translates two different ways into English. Where it indicates an exception to a hypothetical situation, it is translated by the conjunction ‘unless’ in verbal contexts, and by the preposition ‘without’ for nouns. If applied to a real or actual situation, it is translatable by such expressions as ‘except for’, ‘but for,’ ‘if not for,’ ‘if it wasn’t for,’ or ‘if it wasn’t on account of.’ Example of usage: She loves everybody except clowns; Without peace, this society is doomed; If not for the rain, we would have had a good time; All animals are vermin except cats; He’ll eat anything but (not) spinach.

Wašḑayá

“remove”-RTR-OBS

cwe

Mx/NEU/A-ABS

warrahňöa.

“cat”-CCV-CVS

Everything was removed except the cat.

Revisor’s Comment

Note that the Conversive case is an Adverbial case so it will be assumed to convey CCN status when unmarked with Case-Scope.

Wašḑayá

“remove”-RTR-OBS

cwe

Mx/NEU/A-ABS

warröa.

“cat”-CVS

Everything was removed, if it (the removal) wasn’t on account of (the existence of) the cat. / Everything was removed with due allowance for (the existence of) the cat.
(i.e. the cat is an exception to the romoval)

4.5.9 SIT The Situative Case

The SITUATIVE case is marked by the Vc affix -oa. The SITUATIVE identifies a noun as the background context for a clause without implying a direct causative relationship between the background context and the act, condition, or event which occurs. It is translatable into English by various circumlocutions, as shown in the following examples: Because of war, our planet will never be able to join the Federation; Given the presence of clowns, we must accept the corruption of our children; Using my plan, we will defeat the enemy.

Wekská

“feel.anger”-OBS

weli

“child”-AFF

kšiloa.

“clown”-SIT

The child is angry because of the clown.
[e.g., because of the clown’s presence/existence, not because of anything the clown directly did to the child]

4.6 The Relational Cases

The Relational cases are yet another group of eight cases which modify a formative to show it has a particular relationship to another, usually adjacent formative.

SPECIAL NOTE regarding Vc Affix Markers for Cases 37 through 68

The Relational cases are marked by adding a glottal stop after the vowel-forms a, ä, e, i, ëi, ö, o, and u. However, these affixes are word-final and it is not phonotactically permissible to end a word with a glottal stop (except the Parsing Adjunct—see Sec. 2.7, No. 5). Therefore, each of these affixes must be modified per the rules in Sec. 2.2, so that the forms become a’a, ä’ä, e’e, i’i, ë’i, ö’ö, o’o, and u’u. In addition to the Relational Cases, such modifications per Sec. 2.2 apply to the remaining Affinitive, Spatio-Temporal I and Spatio-Temporal II cases as well.

Furthermore, to shorten the Vc affix for cases 37 through 52, this glottal-stop may instead be added to any other vocalic form in the formative after Slot II (i.e., it may be added to Vr in Slot IV, to Vx in Slots V or VII, or to Vn in Slot VIII) as long as the formative does not have a Slot IV/VI a + Ca shortcut per Sec. 3.10, and as long as the Sec. 5.8 rule on moving the Cn Mood/Case-Scope affix to Slot VI has not been applied.

The eight Relational cases are the PERTINENTIAL, DESCRIPTIVE, CORRELATIVE, RESULTATIVE, COMPOSITIVE, COMITATIVE, UTILITATIVE, PREDICATIVE, and RELATIVE.

4.6.1 PRN The Pertinential Case

The PERTINENTIAL case is marked by the Vc affix -a’ (realized as -a’a) in formative Slot IX. It identifies a formative functioning as the general referent of the verb, translating such English terms as ‘about,’ ‘regarding,’ ‘concerning,’ ‘in regard to,’ ‘in reference to,’ ‘pertaining to,’ or ‘as for.’ Examples of use would be a song of love; As for those books, burn them!; Let’s talk about clowns; His attitude toward women.

ellyila

“singing”-OBJ-THM

englaʼra

“bivalve”-G-PRN

a song about some shellfish

Malihái

“talk”-RCP-DIR

alxlaʼva.

“science”-N-PRN

Let’s discuss science.

4.6.2 DSP The Descriptive Case

The DESCRIPTIVE case is marked by the Vc affix -ä’ (realized as -ä’ä) in formative Slot IX. It identifies a formative as describing another formative in an adjectival manner, translatable as ‘characterized/describable as being like’, ‘characterized/describable as having the quality/qualities of’. Examples: That clown has an evil face, She is clearly a sickly child.

wala

“person”-THM

yačpäʼä

PRX-“being.stupid”-DSP

a stupid person

aţkläl

“place”-CTE-THM

uçfaʼdä

“peaceableness”-PRX-DSP

a peaceful place

4.6.3 COR The Correlative Case

The CORRELATIVE case is marked by the Vc affix -e’ (realized as -e’e) in formative Slot IX. It indicates an abstract general relationship, association, or conjunction between one formative and another, including subjective, contextual, metaphorical, or symbolic associations. It translates general phrases such as ‘relative to,’ ‘in relation to,’ ‘in correlation with,’ ‘in association with,’ e.g., career goals, the soup of the day, the direction of that road, The elapsed time relative to the distance determines the winner, Our next topic is sex and/in art (i.e., the relationship between art and sex).

eţir

“entity.situated.in.a.particular.direction”-G-THM

iolcaʼle

DCD₁/4-“road”-COR

objects lying in the direction of the road

emževa

“sexual.relations”-CSV-N-THM

lyaʼje

“work.of.art”-A-COR

sex in art

4.6.4 CPS The Compositive Case

The COMPOSITIVE case is marked by the Vc affix -i’ (realized as -i’i) in formative Slot IX. It identifies a formative as being the literal or figurative substance or component(s) of which another is made, composed, formed, built or comprised. Example of usage would be That statue was carved out of marble, She owns three gold(en) coins, We were caught in a web of lies, I use a wooden ladder, It was a house of cards, Three suits comprise his wardrobe, Joe detests styrofoam cups.

aňļir

“existent.thing”-G-THM

atļmäʼvi

“plastic”-CTE-N-CPS

things made of plastic

4.6.5 COM The Comitative Case

The COMITATIVE case is marked by the Vc affix -ëi’ (realized as -ë’i) in formative Slot IX. It identifies a formative that accompanies another, translatable as ‘(along) with’. My father was walking with a loaf of bread; The clown walked to the party with the dog (i.e., signifying mere accompaniment, not the dog necessarily walked as well [the clown could have carried it]); I’m with the brigade (i.e., I have merely accompanied them but am not necessarily a member); She played a game with her sister (i.e., signifying they participated in the same game, not necessarily as competitors), a pedestrian with an umbrella (i.e., carrying it but not using it).

When used with PARALLEL or COMPLEMENTARY valence (see Secs. 5.1.2 and 5.1.5), it signifies that the formative is being used in the same (or a complementary) way or is undergoing the same (or a complementary) activity as the other formative it is associated with. A more exact translation of such usage would be ‘in conjunction with’. Examples: The clown walked to the party with the child (i.e., the child walked as well alongside); I’m with the brigade (i.e., I am a member); She played a game with her sister (i.e., competing against her).

waleca

“person”-GID₁/3-THM

amtriʼlëi

“hat”-OBJ-COM

a man with a hat

4.6.6 UTL The Utilitative Case

The UTILITATIVE case is marked by the Vc affix -ö’ (realized as -ö’ö) in formative Slot IX. It identifies a formative in the process of being used while some other activity or state is in progress. It does not imply the INSTRUMENT of an act as does the INSTRUMENTAL case. Examples: the gun-wielding man, a pedestrian with an umbrella (i.e., with it open and using it), a girl with a backpack (i.e., wearing it on her back).

waleca

“person”-GID₁/3-THM

amtriʼlö

“hat”-OBJ-UTL

a man wearing a hat

4.6.7 PRD The Predicative Case

The PREDICATIVE case is marked by the Vc affix -o’ (realized as -o’o) in formative Slot IX. It identifies the non-causal basis, foundation, sustenance (literally or figuratively), or required existential condition for another noun or clause, translatable by the phrases ‘based (up)on,’ ‘dependent (up)on’ or ‘relying on.’ Examples of use are a book dependent on a publisher, a man relying on charity, laws based in reason, success supported by corruption.

aẓtaţra

“law”-MDS/G-THM

uslaʼvo

“reasoning”-N-PRD

laws based in reason

4.6.8 RLT The Relative Case

The RELATIVE case is marked by the Vc affix -u’ (realized as -u’u) in formative Slot IX. It identifies a formative as constituting a relative clause associated with the preceding formative (or whatever formative is indicated by the DCD affix [see the Affixes document] as being the head of the relative clause).

kšila

“clown”-THM

erḑmezwoʼivvu

“act.of.cheating”-CSV-(ca:ERG₂)-N-RLT

a clown who cheats

4.7 The Affinitive Cases

These are a group of eight miscellaneous cases which translate various adjectival or adverbial phrases. The eight Affinitive cases are ACTIVATIVE, ASSIMILATIVE, ESSIVE, TERMINATIVE, SELECTIVE, CONFORMATIVE, DEPENDENT, and VOCATIVE.

4.7.1 ACT The Activative Case

The ACTIVATIVE case is marked by the Vc affix -ai’ (realized as -a’i) in formative Slot IX. It identifies the EXPERIENCER of a modal state, such as obligation, necessity, desire, hope, expectation, wishing, being able to, etc. functioning as the “subject” of a modal(ized) verb governing a hypothetical state (i.e., what is wanted, needed, expected, able to be done, etc.). Mr. Atoz wants peace; I expect justice; We clowns need passengers for our spaceship, uh, I mean circus tent.

Amskadwû

“necessity”-PRX/N-ITU

kšivölaʼi

“clown”-N-CTR₁/6-ACT

wiorkwa.

N-“filial.love”-THM

I think even clowns need love.

4.7.2 ASI The Assimilative Case

The ASSIMILATIVE case is marked by the Vc affix -au’ (realized as -a’u) in formative Slot IX. It identifies a formative used as a context for analogy or metaphorical comparison to another formative; translatable as ‘as/like’ meaning ‘as if (it were) X’ in the sense of comparison or analogy between one thing and another that it is not, e.g., She sings like a bird, Treat her as/like a princess (= as if she were a princess), He talks like a child (even though he’s an adult).

Malá

“talk”-OBS

su

2m/NEU-IND

welaʼu.

“child”-ASI

You talk like a child.
[even though you are not a child]

4.7.3 ESS The Essive Case

The ESSIVE case is marked by the Vc affix -ei’ (realized as -e’i) in formative Slot IX. It identifies the role or name by which an entity is known or contextually identified. It translates English ‘as/like’ in the sense of naming or reference to the an entity’s functional identity, e.g., They called him a clown, The woman entered the club as an equal of any man, We consider you our only hope, Treat her as/like a princess (because she is one), He talks like a child (because he is a child).

Malá

“talk”-OBS

su

2m/NEU-IND

weleʼi.

“child”-ESS

You talk like a child.
[because you are one]

4.7.4 TRM The Terminative Case

The TERMINATIVE case is marked by the Vc affix -eu’ (realized as -e’u) in formative Slot IX. It identifies a formative as being the goal of an act/event, e.g., We seek a new planet; a desire to see his homeland; an academy for (making) champions.

Pţradá

“hunt”-PRX-OBS

kro

3p/BEN+1m/BEN-ERG

wailveʼu.

G-“deer”-G-TRM

We’re hunting deer.

4.7.5 SEL The Selective Case

The SELECTIVE case is marked by the Vc affix -ëu’ (realized as -ë’u) in formative Slot IX. It identifies a contextually recurring time-period, as well as a string of recurring entities, e.g., I visit him every three days; Each year, I travel to the Clown Planet; He works nights; By day, she is an artisan; The clowns visit us on Sundays; ...every third book; ...every green one. Note that if one whishes to particularly emphasize the repetitive nature of an event, the CLASSIFICATIVE can be used instead (see Sec. 4.5.3 above).

walazëʼu

“person”-XX3₁/1-SEL

every third person

4.7.6 CFM The Conformative Case

The CONFORMATIVE case is marked by the Vc affix -ou’ (realized as -o’u) in formative Slot IX. It identifies the entity pursuant to which, as per which, or in conformance with which, another entity is, or an act/event occurs. Examples: He’s leaving town as per orders from the court; You were arrested pursuant to law; I acted in conformance with your expectations.

Uẓtavoʼu

“applicability.of.law”-N-CFM

arzälalžóu

“obey”-OBG₁/1-ADM

saʼi.

2m/NEU-ACT

Under the law, you must obey.

4.7.7 DEP The Dependent case

The DEPENDENT case is marked by the Vc affix -oi’ (realized as -o’i) in formative Slot IX. It identifies a formative as being the basis of a dependency phrase on which another formative or phrase acts as the contingency, translatable as ‘...if the circumstances regarding X are such to allow/warrant it’ where the final “it” refers to the original contingency noun/phrase whose existence/occurrence is (at least in part) determined by or contingent upon the dependency phrase. The exact nature of the dependency can be specified using the DPC affix shown below. However, the DEPENDENT case can be used without the DPC affix to say in general, for example, ‘I’ll come, depending on what day of the week it is’, as opposed to specifying the exact nature of the dependency by using the DPC affix, e.g., ‘I’ll come but only if it’s a certain day of the week’.

-ck | DPC | Dependent Circumstances（Dependent Circumstances）

specifies the nature of the dependency signified by the DEPENDENT case

1. The contingency clause will only take place if the dependent noun/clause is true, but will not take place if the dependency noun/clause is false. e.g.,

   • Break the glass only in case of fire.
   • She’ll come to the party only if Oswaldo the Clown is there.

2. The contingency clause will take place if the dependent noun/clause is true, but will not take place if the truth value of the dependency noun/clause is unknown, e.g.,

   • I’ll break the glass only if I’m certain there’s a fire [i.e., I will not break it if I’m unsure whether there’s a fire or not].
   • If Oswaldo the Clown is there, she’ll attend (i.e., if it is unknown whether Oswaldo is there, she will not attend).

3. The contingency clause will take place if the dependent noun/clause is true, but it is unknown/uncertain if it will take place if the truth value of the dependency noun/clause is unknown, e.g.,

   • I’ll break the glass in case there’s a fire [i.e., but I don’t know whether I’ll break it if I’m unsure whether there’s a fire or not].
   • If Oswaldo the Clown is there, she’ll attend (i.e., if it is unknown whether Oswaldo is there, she may not attend).

4. The contingency clause will take place if the dependent noun/clause is true, but it is unknown/uncertain if it will take place if the dependency noun/clause is false, e.g.,

   • I’ll break the glass if there’s a fire [but I may also break it even if there isn’t a fire].
   • If Oswaldo the Clown is there, she’ll attend (i.e., if he isn’t there, it is unknown whether she’ll attend or not).
     [Note the following two “inverse” examples where the dependency clauses are negatives, i.e., ‘if it does not rain’ and ‘if Oswaldo isn’t there’]:
   • We’ll go for a walk, depending on the rain (i.e., if it doesn’t rain we’ll walk, but if it does rain, we may still walk or may decide not to walk).
   • She’ll attend if Oswaldo the Clown is not there, but may or may not attend if he is there.

5. The contingency clause will take place regardless of whether the dependent noun/clause is true or false, e.g.,

   • Break the glass whether or not there’s fire.
   • She’ll attend the party regardless of whether Oswaldo the Clown is there.

6. The contingency clause will take place if the dependent noun/clause is true, and will not take place if the dependency is false, but it is unknown/uncertain if it will take place if the truth value of the dependency noun/clause is unknown, e.g.,

   • I’ll break the glass in case there’s a fire [i.e., and will not break it if there’s no fire, but I don’t know if I’ll break it if I’m unsure whether there’s a fire or not].
   • If Oswaldo the Clown is there, she’ll attend (i.e., and will not attend if he’s not there, but if it is unknown whether Oswaldo’t there, she may not attend).

7. The contingency clause will take place if the dependent noun/clause is true or if it is unknown/uncertain, but will not take place if the dependency is false, e.g.,

   • I’ll break the glass in case there’s a fire [i.e., I’ll break it if there’s a fire or if I’m uncertain whether there’s a fire, but will not break it if I know there is no fire].
   • If Oswaldo the Clown is there, she’ll attend (i.e., she’ll attend if he’s there or if she doesn’t know if he’s there, but won’t attend if she knows he’s not there).

8. Likelihood of the contingency clause taking place is unknown/unpredictable because the dependent noun/clause’s truth value is unknown/unpredictable, e.g.,

   • She may show up depending on her attitude.
   • Her attending the party depends upon Oswaldo the Clown being there (however, it is unknown whether it is Oswaldo’s presence or his absence that determines whether she attends).

9. The contingent clause represents only a precautionary/preparatory measure because the dependent noun/clause’s truth value is unknown/unpredictable, e.g.,

   • We have umbrellas in case of rain.
   • She’s carrying a gun in case Oswaldo the Clown is there.

The following chart more systematically illustrates the distinctions between the nine degrees of the affix:

Degree	The contigency occurs if the Dependency Value is…				if the Dependency Value is…
	true	unknown	as desired by contingency party		true	false	unknown
1	x			but will not occur		x
2	x						x
3	x			and/but may (not) occur			x
4	x					x
5	x			and will also occur		x
6	x			but may (not) occur if dependency uncertain, and will not occur		x
7	x	x		but will not occur		x
8			x	however, dependency value is unknown to speaker
9		x		as a precaution

Note there are no negative values for the contingency clauses listed, i.e., “X will NOT occur if...”. Such negative contingencies are expressed by simple negation of the contingency phrase. Similarly, the dependency clause (expressed in the DEPENDENT case) may also be negated if semantically required.

Example:

Watkwäyû

“attendance.at.event”-PRS-ITU

welu

“child”-IND

weppļiʼa

“party”-LOC

kšilütřackoʼi.

“clown”-DX1₁/8-DPC₁/1-DEP

The child will probably only come to the party if there’s a clown there.

4.7.8 VOC The Vocative Case

The VOCATIVE case is marked by the Vc affix -ui’ (realized as -u’i) in formative Slot IX. It identifies a noun being used in direct address. Examples: “Mr. Atoz!”, “Hey, clown!”

Kšiʼlui!

“clown”-VOC

Hey, clown!

Weiluʼi,

Stem.2/G-“child”-VOC

gulái

“ambulate”-DYN-DIR

onţläliʼö

“automobile”-CTE-ABL

kšiʼve

“clown”-N-COR

Children, walk away from the clown car!

4.8 The Spatio-Temporal Cases — Group I

This group of eight cases are used to identify contexts relating to spatial location, although in many cases they can also be used metaphorically in temporal, rather than spatial contexts. The eight cases are LOCATIVE, ATTENDANT, ALLATIVE, ABLATIVE, ORIENTATIVE, INTERRELATIVE, INTRATIVE, and NAVIGATIVE.

4.8.1 LOC The Locative Case

The LOCATIVE case is marked by the Vc affix -ia’ (realized as -i’a) in formative Slot IX. It identifies the location where something is situated or occurs; ‘at / in / on / by’. Examples: The children are in/at the clown’s tent; Hortense is by the guillotine; Place the four glowing nodules on the floor; My uncle is on that plane.

epřeliʼa!

“entryway”-CSV-LOC

at the entrance

4.8.2 ATD The Attendant Case

The ATTENDANT case is marked by the Vc affix -ie’ (realized as -i’e) in formative Slot IX. It functions as a variant of the LOCATIVE case, to indicate in whose presence something occurs/takes place/is situated. However, such a function has implications allowing the ATTENDANT case to identify a vague or externally determined non-causal (and potentially causal) relationship to the event/state/act/occurrence/situation in question. The party marked by ATTENDANT case becomes relevant to or involved in a situation, however, the manner of this involvement/relevancy is vague, undefined, or left to the imagination/speculation of the addressee.

The rationale behind such an interpretation of the ATTENDANT case is that the party in whose presence something occurs, if animate, implicitly becomes a witness to the occurrence. Being a witness furthermore implies that the party experiences some effect or consequence of what has taken place in their presence. Such an effect/consequence may be nothing more than maintaining a visual memory of what has occurred, but on the other hand, may result in initiating a responsive action by the witnessing party (i.e., a consequent causal act). Even inanimate entities marked for ATTENDANT case can potentially become involved in the state/act/event/situation to the point of causal consequences. For example, if a fire takes place “in the presence of” a box of fireworks, the implied consequence is obvious.

The following examples illustrate how the ATTENDANT is used to imply contexts of involvement and consequence:

[with second party in DATIVE case:]

Muliuţmá

mu

hlü

Jon

hma

ažxíp.

She shoutsfire!to John

[with second party in ATTENDANT case:]

Muliuţmá

mu

hliʼe

Jon

hma

ažxíp.

She shoutsfire!in John’s presence / She shoutsfire!with John nearby
(thus causing John to do something, e.g., run for a fire extinguisher, run out of the building, etc.)

[with second party in COMITATIVE case:]

Wanzvihá

mu

welëʼi.

She is playing a game with the child.

[with second party in ATTENDANT case:]

Wanzvihá

mu

weliʼe.

She is playing a game [with someone] while the child watches/while the child sits nearby/in the child’s presence.

Also, for sentences where the semantic role of the external head of a relative clause is left unstated (as in the first sentence below), the implied case would be ATTENDANT. Thus, the two sentences below are semantically equivalent.

[with semantic role of the head of a relative clause implied:]

Ẓalá

li

welenëi

máliʼhu

kširu.

I see the child who is talking with the clowns.

[with the head of a relative clause marked by ATTENDANT case:]

Ẓalá

li

welenëi

máliʼhu

thiʼe

kširu.

I see the child who is talking with the clowns.

4.8.3 ALL The Allative Case

The ALLATIVE case is marked by the Vc affix -io’ (realized as -i’o) in formative Slot IX. It identifies the entity toward which another entity is moving/approaching, translating English ‘to/toward’. Examples: Go to the window; The children were seen headed toward the clown encampment.

wajliʼa wajliʼo

“mountain”-ALL

to(ward) the mountain

4.8.4 ABL The Ablative Case

The ABLATIVE case is marked by the Vc affix -iö’ (realized as -i’ö) in formative Slot IX. It identifies the entity away from which another entity is moving/receding. It translates English ‘(away) from’. Examples: The children were seen coming from the clown car; Move away from the window; I’ve just come from the store.

Weiluʼi,

Stem.2/G-“child”-VOC

gulái

“ambulate”-DYN-DIR

onţläliʼö

“automobile”-CTE-ABL

kšiʼve

“clown”-N-COR

Children, walk away from the clown car!

4.8.5 ORI The Orientative Case

The ORIENTATIVE case is marked by the Vc affix -eë’ (realized as -e’ë) in formative Slot IX. It identifies the entity (often a body part or sub-component) which serves as the “face” or surface or “front” or “head” of an entity in terms of external communication or interaction, or which serves as the forward “end” of a spatially orientated axis aligned to a vector of motion in terms of directional movement. Examples: He turned his body (to face) frontward; Clowns like to teach children to walk backward(s); The car suddenly veered sideways.

Gavó

“ambulate”-N-ASR/CVN

wioḑpu

N-“crab”-IND

ustyaleʼë.

“flank/side”-ORI

They say crabs walk sideways.

4.8.6 IRL The Interrelative Case

The INTERRELATIVE case is marked by the Vc affix -uö’ (realized as -u’ö) in formative Slot IX. It identifies the directional/temporal orientation or position of an entity relative to another, i.e., a noun relative to whose position in space or time another noun is being described for purposes of spatial/temporal orientation, e.g., He turned his back on me, It lies just west of the house, Tell me when the parade starts relative to my arrival.

Arveléi

“amount.of.elapsed.time”-CSV-IRG

iträluʼö

CPT-“process.of.approaching”-CTE-IRL

kšiʼţe?

“clown”-MDS-COR

How long has it been since the clownsʼ arrival?
[focus on the temporal relationship between the elapsed period of time and the point in time when the clowns arrived; compare this example to the one immediately below]

4.8.7 INV The Intrative Case

The INTRATIVE case is marked by the VC affix -uo’ (realized as -u’o) in formative Slot IX. It identifies a formative as being the spatio-temporal boundary point of a span or volume of space or a period of time, i.e, either the starting point or the ending point of a span of time or space. English translations include: ‘as of’ / ‘since’ / ‘until’; for spatial contexts, translates as ‘as far as’, ‘up to’, or ‘between here and there’. Examples: He’s been sad since the (end of the) war; As of noon today, we are no longer accepting applications for clown school; Tickets for a ride to the Clown Planet are available until noon tomorrow; The new lawn stretches up to the back fence; Walk in the area between the flower beds, The train goes as far as Los Angeles.

Arveléi

“amount.of.elapsed.time”-CSV-IRG

iträluʼo

CPT-“process.of.approaching”-CTE-INV

kšiʼţe?

“clown”-MDS-COR

How long has it been since the clownsʼ arrival?
[focus on the juxtaposition between one temporal context and another adjacent to it]

4.8.8 NAV The Navigative Case

The NAVIGATIVE case is marked by the Vc affix -ua’ (realized as -u’a) in formative Slot IX. It identifies the entity whose literal or metaphorically inferred long axis serves as the direction of another entity’s path, course, arc, or trajectory of translative motion. The ancient Polynesians sailed the ocean following (the paths of) the stars; Hortense follows her own path; The UFO flew along (the direction of) Main Street; He hit the ball across the park.

Tralá

“translative.motion”-OBS

elařţru

“child”-VAR/MDS/G-IND

hakšiţé-alcialuʼa.

CONCATENATED:“clownʼ-MDS-COR-PARENT:ʼpath”-RPS-NAV

The children follow the way of the clowns.

4.9 The Spatio-Temporal Cases — Group II

This group of eight cases are used to identify contexts relating to time, although in many cases they can be also used metaphorically in spatial contexts. The eight cases are CONCURSIVE, ASSESSIVE, PERIODIC, PROLAPSIVE, PRECURSIVE, POSTCURSIVE, ELAPSIVE, and PROLIMITIVE.

4.9.1 CNR The Concursive Case

The CONCURSIVE case is marked by the Vc affix -ao’ (realized as -a’o) in formative Slot IX. It identifies a “temporal locative” meaning ‘at or during the time of X’, i.e., the point or stretch in time at or during which an entity or an act/event exists or occurs. Examples: They died during the war; The clowns arrive at noon; Hortense showed up on Saturday.

ujthädaʼo

“war”-CTE-PRX-CNR

during a war/during wartime

wucpirwaʼo

“sixth”-SPT₁/4-CNR

on Saturday

4.9.2 ASS The Assessive Case

The ASSESSIVE case is marked by the Vc affix -aö’ (realized as -a’ö) in formative Slot IX. It identifies the increment of space or time or unit by which a contextual ratio of measurement is created, e.g., He charges by the minute; It travels at 90 kilometers per hour; He earns $25 per book; The permitted allotment is two children per clown.

elesa

“child”-DPX-THM

kšilaʼö

“clown”-ASS

a pair of children per clown

4.9.3 PER The Periodic Case

The PERIODIC case is marked by the Vc affix -eo’ (realized as -e’o) in formative Slot IX. It identifies the span of time / time frame at some point(s) during which, separate events, repetitions, or durationally segmented acts or states take place. Examples would be He wrote the novel in/over six months; These clowns can corrupt your child within a few days; The woman has been ill a lot this year; For the last several concerts, my voice has been deteriorating.

Řeseʼo

“24.hour.day”-CSV-DPX-PER

yeirčá

RPV-“corrupt”-RTR-OBS

kšivo

“clown”-N-ERG

wiole.

“child”-N-ABS

It takes two days for a clown to corrupt a child.

4.9.4 PRO The Prolapsive Case

The PROLAPSIVE case is marked by the Vc affix -eö’ (realized as -e’ö) in formative Slot IX. It identifies the duration of an act, condition, or event, i.e., how long it takes or lasts, e.g., He prayed through lunch, It rained all night, It took three days for the fever to break, She sang for an hour.

Wellyawá

“sing.a.song”-RTR-OBS

urwaleʼö

“hour”-PRO

They sang for an hour.

4.9.5 PCV The Precursive Case

The PRECURSIVE case is marked by the Vc affix -oë’ (realized as -o’ë) in formative Slot IX. It identifies an entity acting as a point in time prior to which an act, condition, or event occurs, e.g., this city before the war, a presentation preceding the banquet.

epssaloʼë

“present.moment”-PCV

before the present moment

wucpirwoʼë

“sixth”-SPT₁/4-PCV

prior to Saturday

4.9.6 PCR The Postcursive Case

The POSTCURSIVE case is marked by the Vc affix -öe’ (realized as -ö’e) in formative Slot IX. It identifies an entity acting as a point in time after which, following which, subsequent to which, an act, state, or event occurs, e.g., this city after the war, a presentation following the banquet, It’s been a long time since I danced.

ujthädöʼe

“war”-CTE-PRX-PCR

after the war

welkošmoʼe

“make.music”-FRM₁/7-PCR

after the music recital

4.9.7 ELP The Elapsive Case

The ELAPSIVE case is marked by the Vc affix -oe’ (realized as -o’e) in formative Slot IX. It identifies the amount of time that has passed or is expected to pass between the contextual present and the time of the act, condition, or event being spoken of. It corresponds to English ‘…ago’ or ‘...from now’. Examples would be Four years ago I was a student; Going back three generations, women could not even vote; Four years from now, I will be a student; Looking ahead three generations, clowns will rule the world; I will be home in three days; Little did he know that two months later he’d be a rich man. The past vs. future distinction is determined from context, any aspectual morphology, or may be specified with the TPP affix (see Chapter 7 on Affixes regarding how to structure a Slot V or Slot VII affix).

TPP* -kt | Temporal Position Relative to Present（Temporal Position Relative to Present）

1. in the remote past, once upon a time
2. past/former/previous; once [e.g., I was young once], a long time ago
3. recent; recently
4. ... just past / just (happened)
5. present/current/present day; now / at present / presently / currently
6. imminent; just about to / about to / on the verge of
7. forthcoming / soon to arrive; soon
8. future / — to be / --to come / eventual(ly); someday...
9. in the remote future / far in the future / long after we’re gone

wapšorcoʼe

“four”-ELA₁/7-ELP

four days ago / four days from now

Iträlawó

CPT-“process.of.approaching”-CTE-RTR-CVN

kšiʼţu

“clown”-MDS-IND

waçčëizoʼe.

“winter”-XX3₁/5-ELP

They say the clowns arrived three winters ago.

4.9.8 PLM The Prolimitive Case

The PROLIMITIVE case is marked by the Vc affix -oa’ (realized as -o’a) in formative Slot IX. It identifies the spatio-temporal boundary point of a span of time or space during which or within which something is expected to or must occur or be situated. Equivalent to English phrases: by the end of / within the period ending in / within the period ending with / before X is over / before X is up / inside of (the period signified by) X. Examples: I expect you to apologize by the time/before dinner is over; If the clowns are going to leave, it had better be before the children’s arrival.

wapšorcoʼa

“four”-ELA₁/7-PLM

by the end of four days from now

iträloʼa

CPT-“process.of.approaching”-CTE-PLM

kšiʼţe

“clown”-MDS-COR

by the time of the clownsʼ arrival / by the time the clowns arrive

4.10 Case-Scope

Formatives showing Case use the Case-Scope affix Cn in Slot VIII to indicate the scope of the case-marked formative over adjacent formatives. This is useful when there is a string of cases modifying another “base” formative; Cn specifies which has scope over which other formative.

Note that the Cn affix in Slot VIII is the same affix that shows Mood in verbal formatives (i.e., verbs), described in Sec. 5.2. The determination as to whether a formative is a noun or verb can be made by its syllabic stress pattern. In contrast to verbal formatives which are stressed on the final syllable of the word, nominal formatives are stressed on the penultimate (i.e., second-to-last) syllable, and framed verbal formatives are stressed on the antepenultimate (third-to last) syllable. Only the latter two show Case-Scope in slot VIII. This is explained in detail in Sec. 6.2.1.

Cn Case-Scope values

CCN

Name

NATURAL

Pattern 1

(h)

Pattern 2

w/y

Meaning

X’s case is governed by the noun-case of the formative marked Cn = -hl-/-hw-; in the absence of such, X’s case is associated with the main verb (or framed verb if within a Case-Frame). [See the SPECIAL NOTE below for an exception.]

CCA

Name

ANTECEDENT

Pattern 1

hl

Pattern 2

hw

Meaning

X is the “head” whose case governs all Cn-unmarked nouns in the clause (or nouns marked with Cn = -h- or w-/-y-)

CCS

Name

SUBALTERN

Pattern 1

hr

Pattern 2

hrw

Meaning

X is the formative to which formatives in the clause marked with Cn = -hm-/-hmw- are associated

CCQ

Name

QUALIFIER

Pattern 1

hm

Pattern 2

hmw

Meaning

X is associated by noun-case to the formative marked by Cn = -hr-/-hrw-

CCP

Name

PRECEDENT

Pattern 1

hn

Pattern 2

hnw

Meaning

X’s noun-case associates only with the immediately following formative

CCV

Name

SUCCESSIVE

Pattern 1

hň

Pattern 2

hňw

Meaning

X’s noun-case associates only with the immediately preceding formative

SPECIAL NOTE

A noun in one of the Appositive, Associative or Relational Cases adjacent to another noun operates as an exception to the above rules. Because such Appositive, Associative or Relational nouns naturally associate with an adjacent noun, default zero-marking on such a noun will be assumed to convey CCP status if the Appositive/Associative/Relational noun is the first of a pair of nouns, or CCV if it is the second of the pair. If there are three consecutive zero-marked Appositive/Associative/Relational formatives, the first noun will be assumed to convey CCP status, while the other two have CCV status.

4.11 Introduction to Case-Accessor Affixes and Case-Stacking Affixes

Each one of the sixty-eight cases has a corresponding Case-Accessor Affix, an Inverse Case-Accessor Affix, and a Case-Stacking Affix. Case-Accessors are explained immediately below. Case-stacking is explained in Sec. 4.11.2.

4.11.1 Case-Accessors and Inverse Case-Accessors

The purpose of Case-Accessor and Inverse Case-Accessor affixes is to be able to assign/label a formative as being a specific party to a particular case-relationship. Examples of this are shown in the following table for the nine Transrelative Cases:

1. THEMATIC THM

• party acting as theME/CONTENT of X
• that of/for which X functions as theME/CONTENT

2. INSTRUMENTAL INS

• the INSTRUMENT/MEANS by/via which X occurs
• that by/via which X is the INSTRUMENT/MEANS

3. ABSOLUTIVE ABS

• the PATIENT to which/whom X happens
• that which happens/is done to the PATIENT X

4. AFFECTIVE AFF

• the EXPERIENCER or undergoer of X (as an affective experience)
• that which the X undergoes as an affective experience

5. STIMULATIVE STM

• that which is the affective STIMULUS of X
• that of/for which X is the affective STIMULUS

6. EFFECTUATIVE EFF

• the ENABLER initiating an event chain leading to X
• the event (chain) that the ENABLER X initiates

7. ERGATIVE ERG

• the AGENT who/that X’s
• that which the AGENT or FORCE X does/initiates

8. DATIVE DAT

• the RECIPIENT of X or of the act of X
• that which the RECIPIENT X receives

9. INDUCIVE IND

• the AGENT who/that X’s him-/her-/itself
• that which the AGENT X does to him-/her-/itself

Because Case-Accessor and Inverse Case-Accessor affixes are structured the same as standard VxCs affixes in formative Slots V and VII, their phonological structure and full list of the affixes with examples is presented in Sec. 7.6 at the end of the chapter on VxCs affixes.

4.11.2 Case-Stacking

Case-stacking refers to the ability to assign two cases simultaneously to a formative (or to a Case-Frame). This is necessary to accurately translate sentences like the following:

I jog every day except during (an) illness.

Examining the above sentence, the phrase “except (for) X” is expressed by the CONVERSIVE case (see Sec. 4.5.8), while the idea of “during X” by the CONCURSIVE case (Sec. 4.9.1). This requires that two different cases to the formative translating ‘illness’, unless we instead resort to expressing the sentence paraphrastically as I jog every day except that I don’t jog during illness.

To allow for two (or more) cases to be assigned to the same formative (or Case-Frame), the base case of the formative is shown as usual by Vc in Slot IX, while the case to be “stacked” upon the base case is expressed by a Case-Stacking affix. Like Case-Accessor affixes, Case-Stacking affixes are structured the same as standard VxCs affixes in formative Slots V and VII. Their phonological structure and full list of the affixes with examples is presented in Sec. 7.6.4 at the end of the chapter on VxCs affixes.

Revisor’s Comment

Be careful to distinguish the following situations:

Please exercise caution when discerning the following applications:

1. The utilization of one case to govern another case, as elucidated earlier.
2. A straightforward coordinating relationship between multiple cases can be enhanced by employing Type-3 affixes, such as COO and XOR.

If your intention is to derive a formative for the semantic relationship of the case itself, you may refer to the first application as a guide (e.g., any Case Stacking Affix + the Slot IX Vc value representing THM).

Please note that the utilization of another stacked case of Referential differs from that of Case Stacking Affix. It bears resemblance to Case Plus Case (the second application) rather than Case Governing Case (the first application).