Distribution of the Earths Unfrozen Fresh Water
98.4%
1.4%
Of the liquid fresh water, 98.4% is groundwater, 1.4% is surface water and 0.2% is in the atmosphere.
Hydrologic Cycle Watershed Scale
Evapotranspiration Interception Infiltration Vadose Interflow Streams Precip Overland
GW recharge Groundwater Base flow
Porosity
Amount of void space Expressed as fraction or %
Porosity Depends on: sorting of grains (not grain size) degree of cementing degree of fracturing
Range of Porosity Values Unconsolidated deposits
Gravel Sand Silt Clay 25-40 25-50 35-50 40-70
Range of Porosity Values Rocks
Fractured basalt Karst limestone Sandstone Limestone, dolomite Shale Dense crystalline rock 5-50 5-50 5-30 0-20 0-10 0-5
Fractured crystalline rock 0-10
Permeability
Not the same as porosity Measured in units of length squared Large permeability results from: Large pores Connected pores Hydraulic Conductivity (K) Permeability with respect to water Measured in units of length/time
Aquifers and Aquitards
Aquifer: rock or deposits capable of supplying usable quantities of water Aquitard: rock or deposits not capable of...
Qualities of a Good Aquifer
High Porosity High Permeability Rock Types vs. Aquifer Quality: gravel => great! uncemented sandstone => good cemented sandstone => fair to poor shale => terrible
Unconsolidated Aquifers Glaciated terranes Till: sediment deposited by a glacier Basal till Meltout till Outwash: sediment deposited by glacial meltwater
Unconsolidated Aquifers Meandering alluvial system
Fetter
Unconsolidated Aquifers Tectonic valleys Intermontane basins
Fetter, Figure 9.6
Rock Aquifers
Sandstone 25% of all sedimentary rock 2 to 30% porosity Shale Aquitard Limestone Solution cavities
Mammoth Caves
Volcanic-Rock Aquifers
Fig. 7.6, Manning
Crystalline-Rock Aquifers
Intrusive igneous and metamorphic Fig. 7.6, Manning
Aquifers
Unconfined aquifer: aquifer with a water table as the upper boundary Water table: top of the saturated zone
Fig 10.2
Fig 10.4
Stream
Aquifers
Confined aquifer: aquifer sandwiched between two aquitards
Confined Aquifers
Fetter, Fig. 3.21b
Confined Aquifers
Fetter, Fig. 3.21b
Confined Aquifers
Fetter, Fig. 3.21c
Groundwater Flow
Hydraulic Head
Measure of waters energy Comprises elevation, pressure and velocity For groundwater, velocity is negligible Water flows from high head to low head
Hydraulic Head
In a Static System
p1 p2 z1 z2
z ref = 0
h1
h2
Total head (h) = Pressure head (p) + elevation head (z) 9 In a static system, h1 = h2
Groundwater Flow
Water table often follows topography Groundwater always flows from high head to low head Groundwater often flows from from high elevation to low elevation
Confined Aquifers
Potentiometric surface: represents total head
Fig. 7.25
Fig. 7.27, Manning
Exploratory well at Hueston Woods State Park, 1951 Well is flowing at a rate of 700 gallons per minute from a depth of 89 feet.
Fig 7.26, Manning
Darcys Law
h Q = KA l Q: discharge, volume/time A: cross sectional area h: drop in head l: distance between points h : head l gradient
Groundwater Velocity Velocity = K h ne l
ne is effective porosity Flow velocities => 15 cm/day (~5 km/yr) in some gravel beds Can be as much as 100 m/d in rare cases About 1 to 2 m/d in Oxfords aquifer Typical velocity in clay is < 1 mm/yr
Fig 10.7
Fig 10.7
Fig 10.7
Subsidence
Leaning Tower of Pisa - built on unstable floodplain seds - leaning due to compaction (1170s AD) - severe leaning due to overpumping of groundwater (1960s)
Salt Water Intrusion
Affects islands and coastal areas Fresh water lens formed by density difference
Fig 10.11
Fig 10.13
Storage
Discharge: amount of water flowing out Recharge: amount of water flowing in Water level maintained when recharge = discharge
