EE2901s Basic Electricity and Electronics

Subject lecturer: Dr. Zhao XU

Department of Electrical Engineering
Hong Kong Polytechnic University
Email: [email protected]
Room: CF632
Tel: 27666160
1
EE2901s Basic Electricity &
Electronics
EE2901s Basic Electricity & Electronics
2
Transformer Outline
(a) Mutual inductance and Coupling
coefficient
(b) Dot convention
(c) Ideal transformer
(d) Practical transformer
(e) Use of Transformer
EE2901s Basic Electricity & Electronics
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Magnetic Field of a Straight Wire
The magnetic field lines around a
long wire which carries an electric
current form concentric circles
around the wire.

If a wire is grasped with the thumb
of your right hand pointing in the
current direction, the fingers encircle
the wire in the direction of the
magnetic field.
EE2901s Basic Electricity & Electronics
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Magnetic Field of Current Loop
Electric current in a circular
loop creates a magnetic field
which is more concentrated in
the center of the loop than
outside the loop.
EE2901s Basic Electricity & Electronics
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Magnetic Field in a Solenoid
Stacking multiple loops
concentrates the field even
more into what is called a
solenoid.
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Magnetic Field in a Bar Magnet
The lines of magnetic field from a
bar magnet form closed lines.

By convention, the field direction
is taken to be outward from the
North pole and in to the South pole
of the magnet.
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Magnetic Field of The Earth
The earth's magnetic field is
similar to that of a bar
magnet tilted 11 degrees
from the spin axis of the
earth.
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Electromagnets
Electromagnets are usually in the form of
iron core solenoids.

The ferromagnetic property of the iron
core causes the internal magnetic domains
of the iron to line up with the smaller
driving magnetic field produced by the
current in the solenoids.

The effect is the multiplication of the
magnetic field by factors of tens to even
thousands.
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Coupled Inductors and Ideal Transformer
When we place two inductors in close proximity or wound
them around a single ferromagnetic core experimental
evidence shows that a change in i
1
will generate a voltage v
2

across the open circuit.
Each inductor is said to be magnetically coupled.
EE2901s Basic Electricity & Electronics
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Dot Convention
Current entering the (un)dotted terminal of one coil produces a voltage that is
sensed positively at the (un)dotted terminal of the second coil.
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Physical Basis of the Dot Convention
From the consideration of direction
of magnetic flux produced by each
coil, dots may be placed either on
the upper terminal of each coil or
the lower terminal of each coil.
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Coupled Inductors (1)
Faradays law:
v
1
= N
1
d
dt
|
1
= N
1
d
dt
|
11
+ N
1
d
dt
|
12
(1)
where |
1
= |
11
+ |
12
is the total flux linking Coil 1
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Coupled Inductors (2)
For linear magnetic materials, flux is proportional to current.
We can write flux
11
in terms of i
1
and L
1
.

Similarly, we can write flux
12
in terms of i
2
and M
12
.
|
11
=
L
1
i
1
N
1
(2)
|
12
=
M
12
i
2
N
1
(3)
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Coupled Inductors (3)
Substitute (2) and (3) into (1), we have:

Similarly, we can obtain v
2
as:
In general, M
12
= M
21
= M
Mutual inductance of
the coupled inductors
v
1
= L
1
d
dt
i
1
+ M
12
d
dt
i
2
v
2
= L
2
d
dt
i
2
+ M
21
d
dt
i
1
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Circuit Symbol for Coupled Inductor
Phasor equations:
Each parameter depends
on the magnetic properties
and geometry of the core.
Coupling coefficient
V
1
= jeL
1
I
1
+ jeMI
2
V
2
= jeL
2
I
2
+ jeMI
1
L
1
L
2
=
M
2
k
2
k =
M
L
1
L
2
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Example 1 (1)
The coupled inductors have parameters: L
1
= 8 H, L
2
= 6 H, and
M = 4 H. Find i
1
(t) and i
2
(t) if i
2
(0
-
) = 0 and S is closed at t = 0.
In Mesh 1, applying KVL, we have:
i
1
R
1
+ v
1
= E
i
1
R
1
+ L
1
di
1
dt
+ M
di
2
dt
= E
4i
1
+ 8
di
1
dt
+ 4
di
2
dt
= 36
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Example 1 (2)
0 4 6 2
0
0
: have we KVL, applying 2, Mesh In
1 2
2
1 2
2 2 2
2 2 2
= + +
= + +
= +
dt
di
dt
di
i
dt
di
M
dt
di
L R i
v R i
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Example 2 (1)
Find v
2
(t).
2 1 2
2 1 1
12 8
8 16
I j I j V
I j I j V
+ =
+ =
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Example 2 (3)
Solving for I
2
and V
2
gives:
I
2
= 0.138Z 141
0
A
V
2
= 1.656Z 141
0
V
or v
2
= 1.656cos(4t 141
0
) V
EE2901s Basic Electricity & Electronics
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Ideal Transformer (1)
If the coupled inductors have unity coupling, i.e., M
2
= L
1
L
2
,
or the coupling coefficient k = 1, then
If the coupling coils of the inductors have infinite mutual and
self-inductances.
Turn ratio
v
1
(t )
v
2
(t )
=
L
1
M
=
M
L
2
= a
i
1
(t )
i
2
(t )
=
1
a
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Ideal Transformer (2)
Two coupled coils are said to be ideal transformer if they
satisfy:
Circuit symbol
a N
N
t i
t i
a
N
N
t v
t v
1
) (
) (
) (
) (
1
2
2
1
2
1
2
1
= =
= =
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Properties of a Transformer
1. A transformer consists of two or more coils wound on
the same core.
2. The basic property of a transformer is to change AC
voltage.
3. A transformer cannot change direct current voltage.
4. A step down transformer has a lower AC output voltage
at its secondary winding than the AC input voltage to its
primary winding.
5. Conversely, a step up transformer has a higher secondary
than primary voltage.
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A Transformer Circuit
A current in the primary
coil produces a magnetic
field, like a solenoid.
The magnetic field
couples around through
the secondary coil.
A voltage is induced
in the secondary coil.
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Impedance Transformation
Z
in
=
v
1
i
1
Z
in
=
av
2
i
2
a
= a
2

v
2
i
2
|
\

|
.
|
= a
2
Z
EE2901s Basic Electricity & Electronics
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Example 1
Find v
1
and v
2
.
The equivalent resistance as
seen from the primary:
R
pr
=
200
5
2
= 8 O
v
1
=
R
pr
R
pr
+ 2
v
s
=
8
8 + 2
50cos1000t
= 40cos1000t V
v
2
= 5 v
1
= 200cos1000t V
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Example 2
O
(

= k 10
2
2
1
pr
N
N
R
Find the turn ratio (N
1
:N
2
) to achieve maximum transfer to
the 10 k.
The equivalent resistance as
seen from the primary:
For max. power transfer, we
want R
pr
= 50 .
14
10000 50
1
2
2
2
1
~

=
N
N
N
N
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Example 3 (1)
Find V
c
.
The equivalent resistance as seen from the primary:
The voltage across
the primary:
Z
pr
= (5 j8) 3
2
= 45 j 72 O
v
1
=
Z
pr
Z
pr
+ (30 + j20)
80Z 50
0
=
45 j 72
75 j52
80Z 50
0
=
84.9Z 58
0
91.26Z 34.73
0
80Z 50
0
= 74.42Z 73.27
0
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Example 3 (2)
The voltage across the secondary:
The capacitor voltage V
c
:
V
C
=
j8
5 j8
v
2
=
8Z90
0
9.43Z 58
0
24.80Z 73.27
0
= 21.0Z 74.73
0
v
2
=
v
1
3
=
74.42Z 73.27
0
3
= 24.80Z 73.27
0
EE2901s Basic Electricity & Electronics
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Small transformer construction
a) Lamination, b) Iron core with winding
Iron core
Terminals
Secondary
winding
Insulation
Physical Structure
The transformer laminations (or coating of shellac, enamel or
varnish) is to insulate adjacent turns from shorts between
winding.
Core type
-Reduce heat loss
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Summary of Objectives
You should be able to:
1. Understand the dot convention and mutual inductance.
2. Analyze circuits with coupled inductors and transformer.
3. Understand the properties of ideal and linear
transformers.
4. Use transformer for impedance matching.
5. Use transformer for voltage level adjustment.

EE2901s Basic Electricity & Electronics
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Machine Outline
(a) DC machine fundamental
(b) DC machine torque relation (dynamics)
(c) AC machine fundamental
(d) AC machine torque relation (dynamics)
DC Motor Experiment
F=BLi
L
F
Mercury - kind of inductor
F=BLI
Homemade DC Motor
Rotate
Two-Pole DC Motor
Stator
Rotor
Mech Power Elect Power
Generator
Mode
Field Current to create
flux
Mech Power Elect Power
Motor
Mode
Field Current to create
flux
DC Machines
DC Motor Types
Separately Excited (field excitation by a
separate electric circuit)
Self-excited
Shunt
Series
Compound

Parallel+series
Connect in series
i
c

L
e
m

One turn on the armature
(As the armature rotates the wire ab is moved in the stator
field)
a
b
e
t

a
b
One Turn on the Armature
Torque on one Turn
c c c
T f r BLi r = =
Torque on ab
Lorentz Force on ab
c c
f BLi =
Magnetic Flux Density, B
B
A
|
=
Area under each pole, A
2 rL
A
p
t
=
E
c
c
p i
T
|
t
=
p - no. of pole in
the stator field
Per pole
New Tc = 2Tc (old)
Armature Torque
E
c
c
p i
T
|
t
=
Torque on one Turn
Torque on N turns
c
c
Np i
T
|
t
=
Coil current
a
c
I
i
a
=
Number of parallel paths, a = 2 for Wave winding
a = p for Lap winding
) (
a
pN
K
I K T
a
a a
t
|
=
=
Armature Back emf
Voltage induced on one turn
2 2
c m
e BLV BL r e = =
Total induced voltage
a a m
E K |e =
DC Motor Equations
a a
T K I | =
Armature Torque, Nm =
Armature back e.m.f. =
Armature constant =
a
pN
K
pa
=
a a m
E K |e =
Mechanical Power =
m a a m
W T K I e | e = =
We use Pm more
frequently than W
Armature Circuit
t a a a
V E I R = +
Example 1-DC motor fundamental
The speed at no load for a separately-excited DC motor is 1200 RPM
when the armature is connected to 115 Volts.

What armature voltage should we apply to change the speed

to 1800 RPM?

to 100 RPM?

Vt=Ea=Ka(fine)Wm
Example 1-DC motor fundamental
N
S
N
S
A 4-pole dc machine has a wave winding of 300 turns.

The flux per pole is 0.025 Wb.

The dc machine rotates at 1000 RPM.

a. Determine the generated voltage.

b. Determine the mechanical power (kW) generated if the current
through each turn is 25 A.

c. Solve (a) and (b) for lap-wound armature.
Current - Speed Relation
E
a

R
a

I
f

+
-
I
a

Field Winding
V
t

+
-
a
t a a a
dI
V I R E L
dt
= + +
0
t a
a
a
V E
I
R

=
t a m
a
a
V K
I
R
|e
=
Torque - Speed Relation
t a m
a
a
V K
I
R
|e
=
E
a

R
a

I
f

+
-
I
a

Field
Winding
V
t

+
-
m
a
a
a
a
t
R
K
R
K
V T e
| |
2
) (
=
Torque-Speed Curve
5
a
K | =
4
a
K | =
3
a
K | =
2
a
K | =
m
a
a
a
a
t
R
K
R
K
V T e
| |
2
) (
=
Speed-Torque Curve
2
a
K =
3
a
K = 4
a
K =
5
a
K =
The torque-speed relation above can be rearranged as



Motor Acceleration
static
d
T T J C
dt
e
e = + +
where J is the combined inertia of the rotor and the load; C is the
viscous damping coefficient; and T
static
is the static load
AC machine fundamental
Ladder under a magnet
Ladder tries to but can never catch the magnet.

The ladder will be slipping behind
1. Metal ladder moving left at v;
2. Voltage & current (Faradays law);
3. Lorentz force on Ladder as shown
Operation principle-Ac motor
Squirrel Cage
Squirrel Cage Motor
Squirrel-cage motors- most common type
Wound rotor motor- frequent start &stop
Synchronous motor large size, low speed (<300rpm)
Single-Phase Motors- small applications
Stator field in
3-Phase induction motor
Two-pole three-phase stator
A
A
B
B
C
C
2
s
f
n
p
=
synchronous speed-speed at which the stator field rotates
Example : The synchronous speed for a three-phase two-pole AC motor in
Australia is 50 Hz.
f = frequency of the source Hz p=Number of stator
poles per phase
Slip ratio
s
s
n n
s
n

=
n -rotor speed, ns-the synchronous speed
SNs=Ns-N
=frequence of rotor current
Example- n
s


Example : Calculate the synchronous speed of a four-pole induction motor excited by a
3f 50-Hz source.
What would be the synchronous speed for the same motor in USA where the line
frequency is 60 Hz?

Winding Connection
Windings can be connected to 3-phase AC sources. Which can be connected in different ways
+ Z = + + =
Z = + =
Z = + =
120 ) 120 cos( 2
120 ) 120 cos( 2
) cos( 2
u u e
u u e
u u e
rms c rms c
rms b rms b
rms a rms a
V V or t V v
V V or t V v
V V or t V v
c
a
b
wye or star
c
a
b
Delta (D)
Y- Connection
3
Line
phase
phase Line
V
V
I I
=
=
c
a
b
wye or star
Delta (A) Connection
c
a
b
3
Line
phase
phase Line
I
I
V V
=
=
Similarly, the load can be connected in Y/Delta
Example- slip ratio
A 3-| induction motor is running at almost 1500 RPM under no load
conditions. The speed is reduced to 1400 under full load.

Calculate
a. The number of poles?
b. The slip ratio at full load?
A. 2f/p=1500rpm=1500/60
p=4
B. S=Ns-N/Ns=0.05

Example- slip ratio
The rotor of this motor can be represented by
the following LR component
What is the rotor impedance under full load
conditions?
What is it under no-load conditions?
Full load
Ns-N/Ns=s
S*1400/60=FR
2piFR=WR
No load
S*1500/60=FR
WR*LR=impedance
Mechanical Model
s s s
P T e =
Stator Power
Under steady-state conditions
s m
T T =
Imagine, we turn the stator mechanically
Mechanical Power
m m m
P T e =
( )
R s m m s m
P P P T e e = =
Rotor Losses
or
( )
s m
R s m s s m
s
P T s T sP
e e
e e
e

= = =
s
*****a missing slide before this slide
Pls refer to the updated notes
Talking about source ofbdifferent power loss
Power Relations
R
s
P
P
s
=
1
m R
s
P P
s

=
The motor power depends on the slip. The power varies because the power factor varies.
Power Factor
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
n
s
Rotar speed
Stator Equivalent Circuit
R
s
L
S
R
C
Lm
E
1
V
1
I
1
I
C
I
m
Leakage
inductance
per phase
Stator
magnetizing
component
Induced
voltage in
stator
phase
Core
loss(small)
Statir loss(small)
Simplified Stator Circuit
Lm
E
1
V
1
I
1
L
S
Blocked Rotor
E
BR

I
R
L
R
R
R
First, consider the rotor being blocked
2
1
1
BR
N
E E
N
=
This is at frequency e
s

Normally, the rotor would rotate at e
R

2
s R
BR BR
s
E E sE
e e
e

= =
Rotor Equivalent Circuit
E =sE
2 BR

I
R
L
R
R
R
BR
R
R
S R
E
I
R
j L
s
e
=
+

BR
R
R s R
sE
I
R js L e
=
+
Divide by s
Rotor Equivalent Circuit
E
BR

I
R
X =j L
R S R
e
R /s
R
(1 )
R R
R
R R
R s
s s
= +
Power to the rotor
2 2 2
(1 )
R
R R R R R
R s
I I R I R
s s

= +
Air gap Power
Rotor Loss
MechanicalPower
Internal
resistance
Combined Circuit
Ac machine
Simple Equivalent Circuit
1
R
R
E
V
I
R
jX
s
'
=
'
+ Total impedance
Example- AC machine model
A 3-phase 450-V 50-Hz six-pole 10-hp squirrel cage induction motor has been tested to
determine the following circuit parameters:

R'
R
=0.50 Ohms

X
E
= X
S
+ X'
R
= 1.3 Ohms

X
m
= 10 Ohms

Assuming a A-connected stator, calculate the stator per-phase line current and the power
factor at a slip of 10%.
What should be X
E
to have a power factor of at least 0.9 ?
Very easy
Equation of Motion
m load
d
T T J C
dt
e
e = + +
Motor Torque = Load Torque + Inertial Torque + Friction
Motor Torque (per phase)
2

1
R R
m
S
I R
T
s e
' '
=
Air gap power
Motor Torque
Motor Torque (per phase)
2

1
R R
m
S
I R
T
s e
' '
=
Substitute the current
( )
2
1
2
2
2
R
m
R S
S R
R V
T
R s
X X
s
e
'
=
'
'
+ +
Wrong equation
Shd be square of the whole equation
Total Motor Torque
For three phases
( )
2
1
2
2
2
3
R
m
R S
S R
R V
T
R s
X X
s
e
'
=
'
'
+ +
Simple equivalent
circuit
Torque-Speed Curve
s=1
s=0
Max
Torque
s
max

Find maximum torque
( )
2
1
2
2
2
3
R
m
R S
S R
R V
T
R s
X X
s
e
'
=
'
'
+ +
T-s equation
To find maximum, differentiate wrt s
2
1
2
2
2
1
0
m R
s
R
E
dT R V d
ds ds
R
s X
s
e
(
(
'
(
= =
( ' | |
+
| (
\ .

Maximum Torque
R
max
E
R
X
s s
'
=
2
1
max
2
s E
V
T
X e
=
Maximum Torque
The slip when the torque is maximum
This is what can be put onto the motor shaft by the motor. The motor will stall if the load torque exceeds
the motor torque.
Another T-s relation
( )
2
1
2
2
2
3
R
m
R S
S R
R V
T
R s
X X
s
e
'
=
'
'
+ +
R
max
E
R
X
s s
'
=
2
1
max
2
s E
V
T
X e
=
max
2 2
max max
2s s T
T s s
=
+
Example- AC motor dynamics
EE2901s Basic Electricity & Electronics
79
The stall torque (maximum torque) for a 3f four-pole 50-Hz motor is 40 N-m. The slip
ratio at that torque is 5%.
a. Calculate the speed at stall conditions.

b. If the slip at full load is 2%, determine the ratio between the start-up current and the
full-load current.

c. determine the operating speed if the full-load torque is slowly increased to 20 N-m

AC Motor Classes
Class A
Quick Start
Class B
Common Duty
Class C
Common Duty
Class D
Rugged
Low Efficiency