Unit 7: Electromagnetic Induction and A.

C Circuits
7.1 Phenomena of Electromagnetic Induction:
# Magnetic Flux (ΦB): is the amount of magnetic field lines passes through a given area
perpendicularly.
> ΦB = B ·A = BA cosθ

# Induced e.m.f: is produced when a magnetic moves (or changes) near a wire.
➢ When a charged particle moves in a magnetic field, it experiences a force.
- Newton’s third law of motion tells us that this force must have an equal and opposite
force. This pair of forces occurs whenever there is relative motion between a charge
and a magnetic field.
➢ This means that, if a magnetic field moves (or changes) near a wire, the electrons in the
wire will feel a force which will tend to make the conduction electrons move through the
wire. This movement of conduction electrons is an Induced e.m.f.
❖ The magnitude of the Induced e.m.f depends on:
• The strength of the magnetic field (stronger magnetic field means larger e.m.f)
• The speed at which the wire move through the magnetic field
(greater speed means greater e.m.f)
• The number of coils of the wire (larger number means larger e.m.f)

# Magnetic Flux Linkage: The amount of magnetic flux that interacts with a coil of wire.
- Magnetic flux linkage is the product of the number of turns of wire, N, and the flux in that
region, Φ, it can be write as;
> Flux Linkage = NΦ
# The Laws of Electromagnetic Induction:
❖ Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction: It stated that;
“The magnitude of an induced e.m.f (ε), is proportional to the rate of change of flux”
- Mathematically, it can be written as:

- Where, k is proportionality constant.

❖ Lenz’s Law: It stated that;
“The direction of the induced e.m.f is such as to oppose the change creating it”

➢ By combining Lenz’s Law with the mathematical expression of Faraday’s Law:

- For N number of coils;

- By substituting for flux, Φ= BA

Exercise 1:
1. Calculate the magnetic flux when a magnetic field of strength 5 x 10−5 T passes through an
area of 10 cm2 that is at an angle of 60° to the magnetic field.
2. A student takes a wire and coils it into 20 circular coils with a radius of 2.5 cm. He then passes
it through a magnetic field of strength 50 mT at an angle of 60°. What is the flux linkage?
3. The coil of wire in question number 2 is moved from the magnetic field to a place completely
outside the magnetic field in a time of 0.3 sec. What e.m.f. is induced in the coil?
Ans: 1. 2.5 x 10−8 Wb
2. 9.81 x 10−4 weber turns
3. 3.27 x 10−3 V
 # Mutual Inductance:
- When there is relative motion between a conductor, or coil, and the field of a permanent
magnet, e.m.f is induced.
➢ However, the magnetic field that induces the e.m.f could be produced by another
coil asshown in Figure below. This is known as Mutual Inductance.
- The unit of inductance is the Henry (H).

➢ Consider the primary coli is connected to an alternating current source (AC).

- As the current changes with time in the primary coil, a changing magnetic field is
producedand this field passes across the secondary coil.
- This changing magnetic field results an induced e.m.f across the secondary coil.
❖ The rate of change of magnetic flux in coil 2 (Φ21), is proportional to the rate of change
ofcurrent in coil 1.

- Where, ε: is induced e.m.f on coil 2.

M21: mutual inductance.
- By rearranging the above equation;

➢ The changing magnetic field also creates an induced voltage and induced current
acrossthe iron core. This induced current is called: Eddy Current.
# Self-Induction:
➢ Consider an Inductor (a coil) is connected across an alternating current source (AC).

- As the current changing cause a changing magnetic field across the coil, this
results (back e.m.f). According to Lenz’s law, this induced current acts in opposite
directionwith the source current.

- Where, ε: back e.m.f

L: self-inductance, its SI unit is also Henry (H).
 # The Inductance of a Solenoid:
➢ Consider a solenoid coil of N turns and length l in a circuit as shown in Figure below.

- For a fixed area, A, and a changing current, I, Faraday’s law becomes;

- The magnetic field of a solenoid is given by;

- Then, by combining the two equations, the e.m.f is given as;

- From the express of self-inductance,

➢ By rearranging the above two equations, the inductance of a solenoid given as:

- For a coil with n turns per unit length with an air core this expression simplifies to
> L = µon2 lA
Exercise 2:
1. Find the self-inductance in a coil where the magnetic field is 30 mT, the area of the coil is 5 cm2,
there are 50 turns on the coil and the current through the coil is 1.5 A.
2. Find the induced voltage in an inductor of 40 mH when the current is changing at a rate of
0.5A/s.
3. Find the inductance of an air cored solenoid of 500 turns per unit length and area 5 cm2. The
permeability of free space is 4π x 10−7 T m2/A.
Ans: 1. 5 x 10−4 H
2. − 2 x 10−3 V
3. 1.57 x 10−4 H
 7.2 Alternating Current (AC) Generator and Transformers
1. Alternating Current (AC):
 Unlike, Direct Current (DC) Alternating Current has no constant current value, its value
changes as a function of time or within a given frequency.
➢ Alternating current (AC) is constantly varying. It is the type of current that is transmitted
from power stations to consumers.
➢ Alternating current (AC) has a sinusoidal waveform.
❖ Electric Generators:
- Generators and Motors are important practical devices that operate on the principle of
Electromagnetic Induction.
➢ Electric Generator is a device used to convert Mechanical energy to Electrical energy.
• It consists of a wire loop rotated in a magnetic field by some external means as shown
in the figure below.

• According to Law of Electromagnetic Induction, as the loop rotates e.m.f Induced on

the loop. And the magnitude of Induced e.m.f is proportional to the rate of change in
magnetic flux.

- For N number of loop,

- From the definition of Magnetic Flux (ΦB):

> ΦB = BA cos θ, and θ = ωt
- Where θ:- is angular displacement.
ω:- is angular velocity (angular frequency), and ω = 2πf
 - Then, the Induced e.m.f given as:

❖ The output (Induced e.m.f ε) of the Generator is then given as:

→ ε(t) = εm sin (ωt)
- Where, εm = NBAω …. (Maximum value of the output)
• The Induced Current (output current) is obtained as;

- From the equation of e.m.f:- ε(t) = εm sin ωt

→ I(t) = Im sin (ωt)

➢ The graph of Voltage and Current can be given as:
 # Root – Mean – Square value of Current and Voltage :
❖ Root – Mean – Square (rms) value is defined as the square root of the mean (average)
of all square values of the given function.
❑ Mathematical concept of Root – Mean – Square:
- If a function f(t) is defined in the interval a < t < b, then the
Mean – Square Value is given by an expression:

➢ Then, the Root – Mean – Square Value is given as;

➢ Root – Mean – Square Current (Irms) is defined as the square root of the mean
(average) of the square of the current.

- From an expression of current: I(t) = Im sin (ωt)

 ➢ Root – Mean – Square Voltage (Vrms) is defined as the square root of the mean
(average) of the square of the voltage.

- From an expression of current: V(t) = Vm sin (ωt)

✓ By applying similar steps as current;

Example:
1. An AC generator consists of eight turns of wire, each having area A = 0.09 m2, with a total
resistance of 12 Ω. The coil rotates in a magnetic field of 0.50 T at a constant frequency of
60 Hz, with axis of rotation perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic field.
(a) Find the maximum induced e.m.f.
(b) What is the maximum induced current?
(c) Determine the induced e.m.f and current as functions of time.
(d) Determine rms value of current and voltage.
(e) What maximum torque must be applied to keep the coil turning?

Solution:
(a) Find the maximum induced e.m.f.
> εm = NBAω, ω = 2πf
> εm = NBA2πf
→ εm = (8)(0.50 T)(0.09 m2)(2π x 60 Hz) = 136 V
(b) What is the maximum induced current?
- Then the maximum current of generator is given as:
> Im = εm/R, where R is the total resistance of the coil.
→ Im = 136 V/12 Ω = 11.3 A
(c) Determine the induced e.m.f and current as functions of time.
➢ An expression of Induced e.m.f given as: ε(t) = εm sin ωt, and ω = 2πf
> ε(t) = εm sin 2πft
→ ε(t) = 136V sin 2π x 60 Hz x t = 136V sin 120 πt
➢ An expression of Current given as: I(t) = Im sin ωt, and ω = 2πf
> I(t) = Im sin 2πft
→ I(t) = 11.3A sin 2π x 60 Hz x t = 11.3A sin 120 πt
(d) Determine rms value of current and voltage.
➢ Root – Mean – Square Current (Irms):

➢ Root – Mean – Square Voltage (Vrms):

(e) What maximum torque must be applied to keep the coil turning?
➢ From an expression of total Torque (τ) on the loop: τ = NIBA sin Ө
> τm = NImBA (maximum torque)
→ τm = (8)(11.3 A)(0.50 T)(0.09 m2) = 4.07 N.m
 2. Transformers:
• It’s often necessary to change a small AC voltage to a larger one or vice versa. Such changes
are effected with a device called a transformer.
 A transformer is a device used to change voltage (either it increase or decrease).
• AC transformer consists of two coils of wire wound around a core of soft iron, as shown in
Figure below.
- The coil on the left, which is connected to the input AC voltage source and has N1 turns,
is called the Primary coil, or the Primary.
- The coil on the right, which is connected to a resistor R and consists of N2 turns, is called
the Secondary coil, or the Secondary.
- The purposes of the common iron core are to increase the magnetic flux and to provide a
medium in which nearly all the flux through one coil passes through the other.

➢ When an input AC voltage ∆V1 is applied to the primary, the induced voltage across it is
given by:

- Where ΦB is the magnetic flux through each turn.

➢ If we assume that no flux leaks from the iron core, then the flux through each turn of the
primary equals the flux through each turn of the secondary. Hence, the voltage across the
secondary coil ∆V2 is given by:

- By dividing the above two expressions;

 • Where, ∆V1 :- Input Voltage.
∆V2 :- Output Voltage.
N1 :- Number of Primary coil.
N2 :- Number of Secondary coil.
❖ If N2 > N1, then ∆V2 < ∆V1 and the transformer said to be Step – Down transformer.
❖ If N2 < N1, then ∆V2 > ∆V1 and the transformer said to be Step – Up transformer.
➢ Ideal Transformer: Where there is no lost energy in the transformer.
> Input Power = Output Power
→ I1 ∆V1 = I2 ∆V2
- Br rearranging the above expression;

- Then, by comparing with the equation transformer;

Example:
1. A generator at a utility company produces 1.0 x 102 A of current at 4.0 x 103 V. The voltage is
stepped up to 2.4 x 105 V by a transformer before being sent on a high-voltage transmission
line across a rural area to a city. Assume the effective resistance of the power line is 30 Ὡ and
that the transformers are ideal.
(a) Determine the percentage of power lost in the transmission line.
(b) What percentage of the original power would be lost in the transmission line if the
voltage were not stepped up?
 Solution:
(a) Determine the percentage of power lost in the transmission line.
➢ From the equation of current, determine I2;

> I2 = I1 (∆V1/∆V2) = 1.0 x 102 A (4.0 x 103 V/2.4 x 105 V)

>> I2 = 1.67A
 Input Power = I1 ∆V1 = 1.0 x 102 A (4.0 x 103 V) = 4 x 105 W
 Lost Power = (I2)2R = (1.67A)2 x 30 Ὡ = 83.7 W
➢ Percentage of lost power in the transmission line given as:

→ % Power lost = 0.021 %

(b) What percentage of the original power would be lost in the transmission line if
the voltage were not stepped up?
➢ If the voltage not stepped up, the primary current will flow in the line,
then the lost power in the line given by:
 Lost Power = (I1)2R = (1.0 x 102 A)2 x 30 Ὡ = 3.0 x 105 W

→ % Power lost = 75 %

Exercise: From the text book: Review Question, Page 286