Arcsin (sin-1) vs.
Csc:
arcsin(x) is the inverse of sin(x).
csc(x) is the reciprocal of sin(x) or 1/[sin(x)].
If sin(x) = 0, then x = arcsin(0) = n, n = any integer.
Variable: Measurement that can change during experiment
Parameter: measurement that is constant during experiment but can change
between experiments
Relation: set of all pairs of values of independent & dependent variables
Function: a unique assignment of a # y [of f(x)] to a #x.
Vertical line test: verifies that a relation is a function
Horizontal line test: verifies that a function has an inverse
Types of functions:
o Algebraic: obtained from polynomials using elementary algebraic
operations (+, -, ,*) and not functions
o Transcendental: non-algebraic functions
o Linear: y=mx+b, where m & b are real #s
Ratio= output/input not constant
Domain:
o Natural domain: largest set of values where f is defined
o Given domain: subset of natural domain that is explicitly stated
Graph: set of all points (x, f(x)) where x is in the domain of f
o Semi-log graph: plots logarithm of output against input to reduce
range of a function
Composition mop of functions m & p: (m o p)(x) = m(p(x))
Discrete-Time Dynamical System:
DTDS:
Consists of an initial value and a rule that transforms the present system
state one step into the future
mt+1= f(mt), where the solution is the sequence of values mt given at regularly
spaced intervals (i.e., data set)
Limits of DTDS sequences: associated function m(t) that is defined for all
tR. If m(t) has a limit at infinity, then sequence shares this limit (v.v not
always true)
Exponential DTDS:
o if bt+1 =rbt with initial condition b0 bt=b0rt
o radioactive decay: mt =m0ekt
o per capita production r: #offspring produced per member of a
population
New population = p.c.p x old population
Pt+1=r *Pt
Behavior of population:
r>1 Population increases
r=1 Population constant
r<1 Population decreases (limited population model)
Additive DTDS:
o if ht+1 =ht+a with initial condition h0 ht=h0+at
Updating function f:
the rule which states how output (mt+1)is observed from input (mt)
f updates the measurement by one time step
f mt+1=f(mt)
Inverse function f-1:
Undoes the action of updating function (go backwards one time-step into the
past)
If f is a function with domain D & range R, then f-1 has domain R and range D
& f -1(b)=a if f (a) = b
Cancellation formulas: for a function and its inverse:
f -1(f(x))=x for all x in domain of f
f(f -1(x))=x for all x in domain of f
Cobwebbing: Using the graph of the updating function (mt+1 vs. mt) to
determine the behavior of the solutions of a DTDS
up/down from x-axis toward functionmove left/right sideways toward
diagonal
solution= points on the diagonal
Equilibria m*:
The value(s) that doesnt change under a DTDS
Points of Intersection b/w updating function f(mt) and the diagonal mt+1=mt
Value of m* such that f(m*)=m*
Stable equilibrium: solutions move closer to the equilibrium
Unstable equilibrium: solutions move away from the equilibrium
Continuous-Time Dynamical System:
CTDS:
Values given for all values of the variable (i.e., continuous curve)
Differential equations describing measurements that are collected
continuously
Defined in terms of limits via continuity, derivatives, & integrals
Rate of change: How dependent variable changes with a change in independent
variable
Avg. rate of change f: slope of secant line (line that intersects 2 points on a curve)
f(t2) f(t1)/(t2-t1)
or
f(to + t)-f(to)/ ((to + t) - to)
Instantaneous rate of change f : slope of tangent line at point P of curve is the
limit of the secant lines (slopes of secants PQ as Q approaches P, but Q P)
Derivative of f at t0:
f (t0)= lim t0(f/ t)
f (t0)= lim t0(f(t0+ t)-f(t0)/ t or
h
Derivative of f w.r.t to x in the domain of f (x)
df/dx = f (x)= lim h0(f(x+ h)-f(x)/ h
f (a)= lim h0(f(a+ h)-f(a)/
Relationship b/w f & f on an interval (c,d)
If f increasing: f (+), f rate of change (+), slope of tangent (+)
If f decreasing: f (-), f rate of change (-), slope of tangent (-)
Limit of function limxaf(x)=L
To define how close we wish the values f(x) (y-values) to be to L, we take an interval
around L, where we can make the values of f fall within these intervals if we pick x
close enough to a, but not equal to a. How f is defined near a (f may or may not be
defined at x=a)
Limit Laws (where c is a constant and limits exist)
where base a>0
The Squeeze Theorem: f (x) is squeezed b/w 2 other functions having same limit L.
for all x close to a, except perhaps for x = a.
If
then, limxaf(x)=L
Direct substitution rule:
For algebraic and some transcendental functions (exponential, logarithmic,
trigonometric, inverse trigonometric), limxaf(x)=f(a) if a is in the domain of f(x)
Evaluating Limits via Direct Substitution:
Infinity ()
limit DNE
#/0 =
limit DNE
Real #
limit = real #
Indeterminate
simplify before doing direct sub.
Indeterminate forms:
0/0
0
-
/
1
0*
0o
Equal Limits rule:
If f(x) = g(x) when xa, and the limits exist, then limxaf(x) = limxag(x)
Limits (end behavior, long-term behavior) at Infinity
Vertical Asymptote: A vertical line x=a is a V.A. of the graph of y=f(x) if
limxa f(x) = as xa from either side
Horizontal Asymptote y: A horizontal line y=L is a H.A of the graph y=f(x) if
limx f(x) = L
or
limx- f(x) = L
o If deg. of numerator > deg. of denominator
No H.A
As x approaches , limit DNE
o If deg. of numerator < deg. of denominator
H.A. = x-axis (line y=0)
As x approaches , limit = 0
o If deg. of numerator = deg. of denominator
H.A. = Divide coefficient of highest powers of x in numerator by
denominator
Comparing Functions that Approach at
When limx f(x)= & limx g(x)=
f(x) faster to if limx f(x)/ g(x) =
f(x) slower to if limx f(x)/ g(x) = 0
Same rate to if limx f(x)/ g(x) = L (where L is finite, not 0)
Comparing Functions that Approach 0 at
When limx f(x)= 0 & limx g(x)= 0
f(x) faster to 0 if limx f(x)/ g(x) = 0
f(x) slower to 0 if limx f(x)/ g(x) =
Same rate to 0 if limx f(x)/ g(x) = L (where L is finite, not 0)
Continuity: function f is continuous if its continuous at every point in its domain;
Point a is continuous if:
1. Limxaf(x) exists
2. f(a) is defined
3. Limxaf(x)= f(a)
Continuous functions: polynomial, rational, root, algebraic, absolute value,
exponential, logarithmic, trigonometric, inverse trigonometric
Combining continuous functions via (+,-, ,*) continuous (where defined)
Checking continuity:
o If f(x) is continuous at all x except a, then check whether or not limxa
f(x) =f(a) holds by computing one-sided limits. If two limits are equal,
then f(x) is continuous at x=a.
Critical Numbers c: c is a critical number of f if c is in the domain of f & either f
(c)=0 or f (c) DNE.
Differentiable Function:
f(x) differentiable at a point x=a if:
o Can calculate the derivative at that point
o f (a) = limh0(f(a+h)- f(a))/h exists)
o Its graph has a unique tangent line with a well-defined slope at that
point
If f is differentiable at a, then f is continuous at a (not necessarily v.v)
Definition of the First Derivative
df/dx = f(x) = limh0 f(x+h)-f(x)/h
First Derivative Test:
Test a critical point (change in slope) at x=c
o If f changes from + to , then f changes from increasing to decreasing,
and f(c) is a local relative max at c
o If f changes from - to +, then f changes from decreasing to increasing,
and f(c) is a local relative min at c
o If f doesnt change sign, then f doesnt have an extreme value at x=c
If f(c)=0 and c is in the domain of the function f(x):
o f is continuous at x=c
o f has a horizontal tangent at x=c
Fermats theorem:
o If a function has an extreme value, then it must occur at a critical point
o Does not imply that a function for which f(c)=0 has a local max/min
at c (function can have a horizontal tangent)
Extreme Value Theorem
o If a function is continuous on a closed, finite interval [a,b], then
function has an absolute/global max & min in [a,b]
o All extreme values occur at a critical number of f or at an endpoint of
the domain (but not v.v)
o Relative extreme values dont occur at endpoints
Definition of the Second Derivative
f(x)= d2f/dx2
Second Derivative Test:
Assuming f is continuous near c and f(c)=0
Inflection pt. (f=0 (or DNE): change in concavity at a point in the domain of f
o f(c)>0concave up (f increasing, slopes of tangents of f increasing)
and f(c) is a local minimum
o f(c)<0 concave down (f decreasing, slopes of tangents decreasing)
and f(c) is a local maximum
o If f(c) = 0 or DNE, x may or may not be an inflection point
Approximations:
Linear approximation of f(x) at x=a is the equation of the tangent line to f(x)
at x=a
o Secant line: pick 2 points defining secant & use point slope equation
o Tangent line: L(x)= f(a) + f(a)(x-a)
Best linear approximation: matches the value & the slope of
function
Quadratic approximation of a function f(x) near x=a using a quadratic
function
o Use Taylor polynomial: Tn(x)= f(a)+ (f(a)/1!)(x-a) + (f(a)/n!)(x-a)n
Most accurate approximation: matches the value, slope, and
curvature (concavity) of function
