PGDBA WORKSHOP 2
Continuity, Differentiation & its
Applications
List of Formulae & Concepts
CONTINUITY
? Continuity: If the graph of a function has no break or gap, then it is continuous, otherwise it is
discontinuous.
1
e.g. Graphs of functions sin x, x, e x are continuous, while , tan x etc. are discontinuous.
x
Continuity at a point: A real function f(x) is said to be continuous at a point ‘a’ of its domain,
if xlim
® a
f(x) exists and equals f(a).
Thus, f(x) is continuous at x = a, if lim f(x) = lim f(x) = f(a)
x ® a+ x ® a-
If f(x) is not continuous at a point, it is said to be discontinuous at that point.
Note: If
(i) f(a) is not defined or
(ii) xlim
® a
f(x) does not exist or
(iii) xlim
® a
f(x) ¹ f(a), then
the function f(x) is discontinuous at x = a.
Removable Discontinuity: A function f(x) possesses removable discontinuity at x = a,
if lim f(x) = lim f(x) ¹ f(a)
x ® a- x ® a+
Continuous functions: A function f(x) is said to be continuous, if it is continuous at each and every
point of its domain.
Continuity in an interval: A function f(x) is said to be continuous in an open interval (a, b), if it is
continuous at each point of (a, b).
If f(x) is defined on a closed interval [a, b], we say that,
(i) f is continuous at a, if lim f(x) = f(a),
x ® a+
(ii) f is continuous at b, if lim f(x) = f(b),
x ® b-
(iii) f is continuous at [a, b], if it is continuous at a, at b and at each point of (a, b).
Note
(i) lim f(x) = f(a) i.e., every constant function is continuous.
x ® a
(ii) Every identity function is continuous.
DIFFERENTIATION
? Differentiation: It is a method to compute the rate at which a dependent variable y changes with
respect to the change in the independent variable x. This rate of change is called the derivative
of y w.r.t. x.
? Differentiation of Some Important Functions:
d d n
1. (c) = 0, c is a constant 2. ( x ) = nx n –1
dx dx
d d
3. (sin x) = cos x 4. (cos x) = – sin x
dx dx
d d
5. (tan x) = sec 2 x 6. (cot x ) = – cosec 2 x
dx dx
d d
7. (sec x) = sec x tan x 8. (cosec x ) = – cosec x cot x
dx dx
d 1 d 1
9. (sin –1 x ) = , x <1 –1
10. dx (cos x ) = – , x <1
dx 1 – x2 1 – x2
d 1 d 1
11. (tan –1 x ) = 12. (cot –1 x ) = –
dx 1 + x2 dx 1 + x2
d 1 d 1
(sec –1 x ) = , x >1 (cosec –1x ) = – , x >1
13. dx 14. dx
x x2 – 1 x x2 – 1
d x d x
15. (a ) = a x log e a 16. (e ) = e x
dx dx
d 1 d 1
17. (log e x ) = , (x > 0) 18. (log a x ) =
dx x dx x log e a
? Rules of Differentiation:
d d
1. If F( x ) = f(x), then F(ax + b) = af(ax + b)
dx dx
d
2. {kf ( x )} = k d f(x), where k is a constant
dx dx
d
3. {f ( x ) ± g(x)} = d f (x ) ± d g( x )
dx dx dx
d
4. [f ( x) g(x) ] = f(x) d g(x) + g(x) d f(x)
dx dx dx
d æ f(x) ö g(x) f ' (x) – f(x) g' (x)
5. çç ÷÷ = , g(x) ¹ 0
dx è g(x) ø {g(x)}2
d
6. (f ( x) )g ( x ) = {f(x)}g ( x ) d {g( x ) log f(x)}
dx dx
d 1 1 d
7. = – · f ( x ), f(x) ¹ 0
dx f(x) {f(x)} dx
2
dy dy dz
8. Chain Rule: If y is a function of z and z is a function of x, then = · .
dx dz dx
? Differentiation of Parametric and Implicit Functions:
1. Differentiation of Parametric Function
If y = f(t) and x = g(t),
æ dy ö
ç ÷
dy dt
then = è ø
dx æ ö
dx
ç ÷
è dt ø
dx d 2 y dy d 2 x
2 · 2 – ·
d y dt dt dt dt 2
and =
dx 2 æ dx ö
3
ç ÷
è dt ø
2. Differentiation of Implicit Function
Take all the terms of the function to be differentiation to the left hand side and assume left
hand side equal to f (x, y), then
éDerivative of f (x, y) w.r.t. x,ù
ê treating y as constant ú
dy
= –ë û
dx éDerivative of f (x, y) w.r.t. y,ù
ê treating x as constant ú
ë û
? Differentiation of One Function w.r.t. Other:
If y = f(x) and z = g(x), then
dy
dy f ' (x)
= dx =
dz dz g' (x)
dx
? Second Order Derivative:
dy
Let y = f(x) be a function of x, then is again a function of x and is called the first derivative
dx
of function y w.r.t. x. If the first derivative is differentiable, then its derivative is called second
d2y
order derivative of the original function and it is denoted by .
dx 2
? Derivative as Rate Measure:
If y is a variable function of t, then y = f(t). Let the value of y at time t is y and the value of
y at time t + dt is y + dy.
Then, change the value of y in time dt = Value of y in time (t + dt) – Value of y in time t = (y
+ dy) – y = dy
dy dy dy
Thus, the average rate of change = as lim is applied, then lim = = Rate of change
dt dt ® 0 dt ® 0 dt dt
of y at time t.
Finally, it is clear that the rate of change of y is its derivative with respect to time t.
? Applications of Differentiation:
Approximation and Error
Derivative of f(x) at (x = a),
f (a + dx) – f(a)
f ' (a ) = lim
dt ® 0 dx
f (a + dx) – f(a)
or = f ' (a ) (approximately)
dx
f (a + dx) = f(a) + dx f ' (a) (approximately)
1. dx is known as absolute error in x.
dx
2. is known as relative error in x.
x
dx
3. ´ 100 is known as percentage error in x.
x Y
Tangents and Normals y = f(x)
y1 )
æ dy ö
Slope of tangent at P( x1 , y1 ) = ç ÷ = tan q = m
1,
è dx ø ( x1 , y1 )
P(x
Equation of tangent at P(x1, y1) is q
æ dy ö X¢ X
( y – y1 ) = ç ÷ (x – x1 ) O
è dx ø ( x1 , y1 ) Y¢
and equation of normal at P(x1, y1) is
æ dx ö
( y – y1 ) = – çç ÷÷ (x – x1 )
è dy ø ( x1 , y1 )
2
æ dy ö
y 1+ ç ÷
è dx ø
1. Length of tangent =
dy
dx
2
æ dy ö
2. Length of normal = y 1 + ç ÷
è dx ø
Increasing and Decreasing Function
• Increasing Function: A function y = f(x)is an increasing function, if f(x) increases as
x increases i.e., x 1 > x 2. Y
Þ f(x 1) > f(x 2), (x 1, x 2) Î Domain of f(x) y = logax
dy (a > 1)
Here, > 0
dx
X¢ X
O
Y¢
• Decreasing Function: A function y = f(x) is a decreasing function, if f(x) decreases as
x increases i.e., x1 > x 2. Y
Þ f(x 1) < f(x 2)
dy y = logax
Here, < 0
dx (0 < a < 1)
X¢ X
O
Y¢
• Non-decreasing Function: If x1 > x2 Þ f(x1) ³ f(x2), then f(x) is non-decreasing function. Here,
dy dy Y
³ 0 (but = 0 for atleast one set of
dx dx
interval of values of x).
X¢ X
O
Y¢
• Non-increasing Function: If x1 > x 2 Þ f(x 1) £ f(x 2), then f(x) is non-increasing function.
dy Y
Here, £ 0
dx
X¢ X
O
Y¢
Maxima and Minima
1. A function f(x) is said to attain a maximum at x = a, if there exists a neighbourhood
(a – d , a + d ) such that f(x) < f(a) for all x Î (a – d , a + d ), x ¹ a.
2. A function f(x) is said to attain a minimum at x = a, if there exists a neighbourhood
(a – d , a + d ) such that f(x) > f(a) for all x Î (a – d , a + d ), x ¹ a.
Y
Greatest Value/
Absolute Maximum
Local
Local Maximum
Maximum
y = f(x)
Local
Minimum
X¢ X
O
Local
Minimum
Local Value/
Absolute Minimum
Y¢
Working Rule for Finding Maxima and Minima
1. First Derivative Test: To check the maxima or minima at x = a
(i) If f'(x) > 0 at x < a and f'(x) < 0 at x > a, i.e., the sign of f'(x) changes from
+ve to –ve, then f(x) has a local maximum at x = a.
(ii) If f'(x) < 0 at x < a and f'(x) > 0 at x > a, i.e., the sign of f'(x) changes from
–ve to +ve, then f(x) has a local minimum at x = a.
(iii) If the sign of f'(x) does not change, then f(x) has neither local maximum nor local
minimum at x = a, then point ‘a’ is called a point of inflexion.
2. Second Derivative Test:
(i) If f''(a) < 0 and f'(a) = 0, then ‘a’ is a point of local maximum.
(ii) If f''(a) > 0 and f'(a) = 0, then ‘a’ is a point of local minimum.
(iii) If f''(a) = 0 and f'(a) = 0, then further differentiate and obtain f'''(a).
(iv) If f'(a) = f''(a) = f''(a) = ... = f n–1(a) = 0 and f n(a) ¹ 0.
If n is odd, then f(x) has neither local maximum nor local minimum at x = a, then
point ‘a’ is called a point of inflexion.
