Math 103
Lecture 8
Dr. Mustafa El-Agamy
Dr. Mohammad Yasin
Continuity of Functions
Continuity of Functions
In the following we try to answer the question:
When is a function continuous in the interval from 𝒙 = 𝒂 to 𝒙 = 𝒃 ?
Perhaps the most natural answer would be:
When its graph for values of 𝒙 in this interval can be drawn
without lifting the pencil from the graph.
Definition of Continuity:
The function 𝒇(𝒙) is continuous at the number 𝒙 = 𝒂 if and only if
all three of the following statements are true:
1. 𝑓(𝑥) is defined at 𝑎.
2. lim 𝑓(𝑥) exists.
𝑥→𝑎
3. lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎).
𝑥→𝑎
If any of the above conditions is not satisfied, we say that 𝑓(𝑥) is discontinuous at
𝑎.
1
Continuity of Functions
At 𝒙 = 𝒂 𝒇(𝒂) 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) 𝒇(𝒙) is
𝒙→𝒂
DNE
𝑓(6)
𝑥=6 --- discontinuous
is not defined lim 𝑓(𝑥) = −∞
𝑥→6
𝑓(−3) lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 2
𝑥 = −3 𝑥 → −3
--- discontinuous
is not defined
DNE
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 3
𝑥=0 𝑓(0) = 3 𝑥 → 0+ --- discontinuous
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 0
𝑥 → 0−
𝑥=2 𝑓(2) = −1 lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 1 lim 𝑓(𝑥) ≠ 𝑓(2) discontinuous
𝑥→2 𝑥→2
𝑥=5 𝑓(5) = 3 lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 3 lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(5) continuous
𝑥→5 𝑥→5
2
Continuity of Functions
Types of Discontinuity:
1. Removable Discontinuity
If lim 𝑓(𝑥) exists, but 𝑓(𝑥) fails to be continuous at 𝑎 because either:
𝑥→𝑎
i. 𝑓(𝑎) is not defined.
ii. 𝑓(𝑎) is defined to be a number but not equal lim 𝑓(𝑥).
𝑥→𝑎
In these cases, 𝑓(𝑥) can be made continuous at 𝑎 by redefining 𝑓(𝑎) to be
𝑓(𝑎) = lim 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑎
This new 𝑓(𝑥) is called the continuous extension of 𝑓 to 𝑎.
2. Non-removable Discontinuity
If lim 𝑓(𝑥) doesn’t exist, then no choice of 𝑓(𝑎) can make 𝑓(𝑥) continuous at 𝑎.
𝑥→𝑎
This non-removable discontinuity is divided into:
• Jump discontinuity • Infinite discontinuity
3
Continuity of Functions
I. Jump Discontinuity
𝑓(𝑥) has a jump discontinuity if
lim 𝑓(𝑥) ≠ lim− 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥 → 𝑎+ 𝑥→𝑎
and both are finite values.
II. Infinite Discontinuity
𝑓(𝑥) has an infinite discontinuity if
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = ±∞
𝑥 → 𝑎+
or
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = ±∞
𝑥 → 𝑎−
or
both are ±∞
4
Continuity of Functions
At 𝒙 = 𝒂 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) Type of Discontinuity
𝒙→𝒂
DNE
𝑥=6 Infinite
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = −∞
𝑥→6
DNE
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 3
𝑥=0 𝑥 → 0+ Finite Jump
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 0
𝑥 → 0−
Removable
𝑥 = −3 lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 2
𝑥 → −3
and redefine 𝑓(−3) = 2
Removable
𝑥=2 lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 1
𝑥→2
and redefine 𝑓(2) = 1
5
Derivatives
Derivatives
Derivatives and Rates of Change
Suppose 𝒚 is a quantity that depends on another quantity 𝒙. Thus 𝒚 is a
function of 𝒙 and we write 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥). If 𝒙 changes from 𝒂 to 𝒃, then the change
in 𝒙 is
∆𝑥 = 𝑏 − 𝑎
and the corresponding change in 𝒚 is
∆𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑏) − 𝑓(𝑎)
∆𝑦 > 0
𝑸(𝑏, 𝑓(𝑏))
the function increases
∆𝑦 < 0
the function decreases
∆𝑦
∆𝑦 = 0
the function is constant
𝑷(𝑎, 𝑓(𝑎))
∆𝑥
where 𝑏 = 𝑎 + ∆𝑥
6
Derivatives
The difference quotient
Δ𝑦 𝑓(𝑏) − 𝑓(𝑎) 𝑓(𝑎 + ∆𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑎)
= =
Δ𝑥 𝑏−𝑎 ∆𝑥
is called the average rate of change in 𝒚 with respect to 𝒙 over the interval
⃡ .
[𝑎, 𝑏] and can be interpreted as the slope of the secant line 𝑃𝑄
Consider the average rate of change over smaller and smaller intervals by
letting 𝒃 approach 𝒂 and therefore ∆𝒙 approach 𝟎. The limit of these average
rates of change is called the instantaneous rate of change in 𝒚 with respect
to 𝒙 at 𝑥 = 𝑎, which is interpreted as the slope of the tangent to the curve 𝑦 =
𝑓(𝑥) at 𝑷(𝑎, 𝑓(𝑎)):
∆𝑦 𝑓(𝑏) − 𝑓(𝑎)
instantaneous rate of change = lim = lim
∆𝑥 → 0 ∆𝑥 𝑏 → 𝑎 𝑏−𝑎
𝑸(𝑏, 𝑓(𝑏))
𝑷(𝑎, 𝑓(𝑎))
7
Derivatives
In other words, we recognize this limit as being the derivative 𝑓 ′(𝑎).
𝑓(𝑎 + ∆𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑎)
𝑓 ′(𝑎) = lim
∆𝑥 → 0 ∆𝑥
Definition: The derivative 𝒇 ′(𝒂) is the instantaneous rate of change of
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) with respect to 𝒙 at 𝑥 = 𝑎, which is interpreted as the slope of
the tangent to the curve at 𝑥 = 𝑎.
Generally, the derivative of a function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) is
𝑓(𝑥 + ∆𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑓 ′(𝑥) = lim
∆𝑥 → 0 ∆𝑥
Let ∆𝑥 = ℎ
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
Note that:
𝑑𝑓 𝑑𝑦 ∆𝑦
𝑦 ′ = 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = = = lim
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 ∆𝑥 → 0 ∆𝑥
Find the derivative for the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 . Hence,
write the equation of the tangent at the point (3,9).
Solution
8
Derivatives
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥)
∵ 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
′
(𝑥 + ℎ)2 − 𝑥 2 (𝑥 2 + 2ℎ𝑥 + ℎ2 ) − 𝑥 2
∴ 𝑓 (𝑥) = lim = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ
2ℎ𝑥 + ℎ2
= lim = lim 2𝑥 + ℎ = 2𝑥.
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0
The slope of tangent at 𝑥 = 3 is 𝒚
𝑓 ′(3) = 2 × 3 = 6
The equation of the tangent at
the point (3,9) is 𝟗
𝑦 − 𝑓(𝑎)
= 𝑓 ′(𝑎)
𝑥−𝑎
𝒙
𝑦−9 𝟎 𝟑
∴ = 6 ⇒ 𝑦 = 6𝑥 − 9
𝑥−3
The Power Rule: 𝒙 raised to any power 𝒏
𝑑 𝑛
(𝑥 ) = 𝑛 𝑥 𝑛−1
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑 1
(𝑐) = 0 where 𝑐 is a constant (𝑥) = 1 ( √𝑥 ) =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2 √𝑥
9
Derivatives
Differentiation Rules
▪ Constant Multiple Rule
𝑦 = 𝑐 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑑𝑦 𝑐 𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑐 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥)
= lim = 𝑐 lim = 𝑐 𝑓 ′(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 ℎ → 0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ
𝑦 = 6 𝑥3
𝑦 ′ = 6 (3𝑥 2 ) = 18 𝑥 2
▪ Sum Rule
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) + g(𝑥)
𝑑𝑦 [𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) + g(𝑥 + ℎ)] − [𝑓(𝑥) + g(𝑥)]
= lim
𝑑𝑥 ℎ → 0 ℎ
[𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥)] + [g(𝑥 + ℎ) − g(𝑥)]
= lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥) g(𝑥 + ℎ) − g(𝑥)
= lim +
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥) g(𝑥 + ℎ) − g(𝑥)
= lim + lim
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ
= 𝑓 ′(𝑥) + g ′(𝑥)
10
Derivatives
Similarly,
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) − g(𝑥)
𝑑𝑦
= 𝑓 ′(𝑥) − g ′(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
𝑦 = 2 𝑥4 + 3 𝑥2 − 𝑥 + 9
𝑦 ′ = 8 𝑥3 + 6 𝑥 − 1
▪ Product Rule
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) . g(𝑥)
𝑑𝑦 [𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) . g(𝑥 + ℎ)] − [𝑓(𝑥) . g(𝑥)]
= lim
𝑑𝑥 ℎ → 0 ℎ
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) . g(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝒇(𝒙 + 𝒉) . g(𝒙) + 𝒇(𝒙 + 𝒉) . g(𝒙) − 𝑓(𝑥) . g(𝑥)
= lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) [ g(𝑥 + ℎ) − g(𝑥)] + g(𝑥) [𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥)]
= lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) [ g(𝑥 + ℎ) − g(𝑥)] g(𝑥) [𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥)]
= lim +
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ
g(𝑥 + ℎ) − g(𝑥) 𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥)
= lim 𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) + lim g(𝑥)
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ
g(𝑥 + ℎ) − g(𝑥) 𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥)
= lim 𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) . lim + g(𝑥) lim
ℎ→0 ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ
= 𝑓(𝑥) . g ′(𝑥) + g(𝑥) . 𝑓 ′(𝑥)
11
Derivatives
𝑦 = (5 𝑥 4 + 7 √𝑥 − 6)(𝑥 2 − 3 𝑥 + 10)
7
𝑦 ′ = (5 𝑥 4 + 7 √𝑥 − 6)(2 𝑥 − 3) + (𝑥 2 − 3 𝑥 + 10) (20 𝑥 3 + )
2 √𝑥
▪ Quotient Rule
𝑓(𝑥)
𝑦=
g(𝑥)
𝑑𝑦 [𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) / g(𝑥 + ℎ)] − [𝑓(𝑥) / g(𝑥)]
= lim
𝑑𝑥 ℎ → 0 ℎ
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) . g(𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥) . g(𝑥 + ℎ)
= lim
ℎ→0 ℎ g(𝑥) g(𝑥 + ℎ)
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) . g(𝑥) − 𝒇(𝒙) . g(𝒙) + 𝒇(𝒙) . g(𝒙) − 𝑓(𝑥) . g(𝑥 + ℎ)
= lim
ℎ→0 ℎ g(𝑥) g(𝑥 + ℎ)
g(𝑥) [𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥)] − 𝑓(𝑥) [ g(𝑥 + ℎ) − g(𝑥)]
= lim
ℎ→0 ℎ g(𝑥) g(𝑥 + ℎ)
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥) g(𝑥 + ℎ) − g(𝑥)
g(𝑥) [ ] − 𝑓(𝑥) [ ]
ℎ ℎ
= lim
ℎ→0 g(𝑥) g(𝑥 + ℎ)
g(𝑥) . 𝑓 ′(𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥) . g ′(𝑥)
=
[ g(𝑥)]2
12
Derivatives
𝑥2 + 2 𝑥 + 1
𝑦= 5
𝑥 +𝑥−3
(𝑥 5 + 𝑥 − 3)(2 𝑥 + 2) − (𝑥 2 + 2 𝑥 + 1)(5 𝑥 4 + 1)
𝑦′=
(𝑥 5 + 𝑥 − 3)2
▪ Chain Rule (Composite Functions)
𝑦 = 𝑓(g(𝑥))
Let 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑢) and 𝑢 = g(𝑥) i.e. 𝑦 → 𝑢 → 𝑥
If ∆𝒖 be the change in 𝒖 corresponding to a change of ∆𝒙 in 𝒙
∆𝑢 = g(𝑥 + ∆𝑥) − g(𝑥)
then the corresponding change in 𝒚 is
∆𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑢 + ∆𝑢) − 𝑓(𝑢)
and we can write
𝑑𝑦 ∆𝑦 ∆𝑦 ∆𝑢 ∆𝑦 ∆𝑦
= lim = lim . = lim . lim
𝑑𝑥 ∆𝑥 → 0 ∆𝑥 ∆𝑥 → 0 ∆𝑢 ∆𝑥 ∆𝑥 → 0 ∆𝑢 ∆𝑥 → 0 ∆𝑥
∵ ∆𝑥 → 0 ∴ ∆𝑢 → 0
𝑑𝑦 ∆𝑦 ∆𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
= lim . lim = .
𝑑𝑥 ∆𝑢 → 0 ∆𝑢 ∆𝑥 → 0 ∆𝑥 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥
13
Derivatives
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
∴ = . = 𝑓 ′(𝑢) . g ′(𝑥) = 𝑓 ′(g(𝑥)) . g ′(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥
𝑦 = (𝑥 4 + 𝑥 + 2)6
Let 𝑦 = 𝑢6 and 𝑢 = 𝑥 4 + 𝑥 + 2
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
= . = (6 𝑢5 ) . (4 𝑥 3 + 1)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
∴ = 6(𝑥 4 + 𝑥 + 2)5 . (4 𝑥 3 + 1)
𝑑𝑥
𝑦 = √𝑥 3 + 5
Let 𝑦 = √𝑢 and 𝑢 = 𝑥 3 + 5
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢 1 2
3 𝑥2
= . =( ) . (3 𝑥 ) =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥 2 √𝑢 2 √𝑥 3 + 5
14
Derivatives
Note that:
1 Briefly,
𝑑
[𝑓(𝑥)]𝑛 = 𝑛 [𝑓(𝑥)]𝑛−1 . 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 1 ′
𝑓 ′ (𝑥)
[√𝑓(𝑥) ] = . 𝑓 (𝑥) =
𝑑𝑥 2 √𝑓(𝑥) 2 √𝑓(𝑥)
2 Similarly,
𝑦 = 𝑓 (g(ℎ(𝑥)))
Let 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑢) , 𝑢 = g(𝑤) and 𝑤 = ℎ(𝑥)
𝑦→𝑢→𝑤→𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑤
= . . = 𝑓 ′(𝑢) . g ′(𝑤) . ℎ ′(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑤 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
∴ = 𝑓 ′ (g(ℎ(𝑥))) . g ′(ℎ(𝑥)) . ℎ ′(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
𝑦 = √(𝑥 2 + 1)5
𝑑𝑦 1
= . 5 (𝑥 2 + 1)4 . (2𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 2 √(𝑥 2 + 1)5
15
Derivatives
Another solution
𝑦 = √(𝑥 2 + 1)5 = (𝑥 2 + 1)5⁄2
𝑑𝑦 5
= . (𝑥 2 + 1)3⁄2 . (2𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 2
Differentiation Rules
𝒚= 𝒚′=
𝑐 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑐 𝑓 ′(𝑥)
𝑓(𝑥) ± g(𝑥) 𝑓 ′(𝑥) ± g ′(𝑥)
𝑓(𝑥) . g(𝑥) 𝑓(𝑥) . g ′(𝑥) + g(𝑥) . 𝑓 ′(𝑥)
𝑓(𝑥) g(𝑥) . 𝑓 ′(𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥) . g ′(𝑥)
g(𝑥) [ g(𝑥)]2
𝑓(g(𝑥)) 𝑓 ′(g(𝑥)) . g ′(𝑥)
Table 1
16
