Lood Flow Studies

2.7.

INTRODUCT]ON

The various operation aspects of an electrical power system, the symmetrical steady state operatiori
the most important mode of operation. A knowledge of this mode of operation is essential to
supply of real and reactive powers demanded by various loads, with the fiequency and the various
voltages maintained rvithin specified tolerances and with optimum economy. Study of this mode
trperation is carried out to arrive at the most satisfactory layout at the planning stage and to mai
qualityand economy of power supply while the systems is in operation.

The rnathematical formulation ol the kjad flow study results in a system of non-linear eq
'fhese quantities can be written interms
of either the bus admittance matrix or bus impedance
'l'he former is more suitable
to digital computer analysis. because of the cases with which the
admittance matrix could be formed and modified for network changes in subsequent changes.
this approactr (adrnittance matrix) is the most economical from the point of view of computer
and memory requirement ,

i.e., we can store

n (n-+

l)

terms are to be stored in yru. for an

system.

The symmetrical steady state operation can be classified as follows

l.

System modeling and load flow analysis

2.
3.

Optimum eenerating strategy and

System control.
In this chapter. we present only systen"r modeling and load flow analysis.

2.2

NECESSITY OF LOAD FLOW STUDIES

Load flow solution is a solution of the network under steady state operation subjected to
inequality constraints under which the system operates. These constraints can be in the tbrm of
node voltages, reactive power generation of the generators, the tap settings of the tap
transformers under load. etc.
Load tlow studies are conducted at the stage ofplanning, operation and control. They are used
determine the magnitude and phase angle of load buses and active and reactive power injected at
and also active and reactive power flows over transmission lines. This information is necessary for

following functions

66

Load.

(i)
(ii)

(iii)

flow Studres 57

To keep the voltage level of certain buses within closed tolerances by proper reactive power
scheduling.
The total active power generation must be equal to the load demand plus losses. This should be
divided amongst the generators in a unique ratio for optimum economic operation. Load flow
studies are used to maintain the above ratio.
The effects of disturbances, which may result in systern failures, can be minimized by proper

prefault load flow strategies.

(rv) To analyze the effectiveness of alternative plans for future system expansion to meet the increased.load demand or for designing a new system.
(v) To determine the best location for capacitors or voltage regulator for improvemenf Ofroltage
regulation.

(vi)

Load flow studies are required at various stages of transient or dynamic stability analysis.
Definition: The study, which gives steady state solution of power system network, for a specified
bus conditions, with certain unequal contraints, is known as load flow study or power flow study and
the solution obtained is known as load flow solution.

2.3 DATA FOR LOAD FLOW STUDIES

2.3.L

Data at the Buses

In general, a bus in an electrical power system is fed from generating units which inject active and
reactive powers into it and loads receive active and reactive pewers from it. In the load flow studies,
the generator and load (complex) powers are lumped into a net (complex) power. This net (complex)
power is called the bus injected power.
The net power injected in the bus is given by

where Po, Qc :
Pp, Qn :
P, Q :

S:

P *7Q

(Pc +/Qo) - (Pn +.lQn)

(pc_pD) +/(ec_eo).

Generation real and reactive powers

Load real and reactive Powers
Injected real and reactive powers

ln addition to the above quantities, ryragnitude and phase angle of the voltage are also associated
with each bus of the four quantities at a bus, viz. , active bus power, reactive bus power, bus voltage
magnitude and bus voltage phase angle, two quantities are specified, the remaining two quantities to
be obtained through the load flow solution. When all the four quantities at every bus in the power
system are known. active and reactive power flows in all the transmission lines can be calculated.
Depending upon which quantities have been specified, the buses are classified

in

the following

three categories:

(i)

(ii)

Load Bus : Load bus is one at which the active and reactive powers are specified. It is desired
to determine the magnitude and phase angle of voltage through load flow study. It is required
to specify only Pp and Qp at such a bus voltage can be allowed to vary with in permissible
values i.e.,5%. Also bus voltage phase angle is not very important for the load.
Generator Bus or Voltage Controlled Bus : Generator bus or voltage controlled bus is one at
which the voltage magnitude corresponding to the generation voltage and active power (P6)
corresponding to its ratings are specified. It is required to determine the reactive power generation (Qc) and bus voltage phase angle.

il

eU*rical Power Sgstem A

(iii)

Slack or Swing or Reference Bus : This type of bus is distinguished from the other two
by the fact that active and reactive powers at this bus are not specified but voltage
and phase angle are specified. Normally there is only one bus of this type in a given
system.

The need of such a bus is as tbllows

In a load flow study active and reactive powers can't be fixed a priori at all the buses as the
complex power flow into the network is not known in advance, the system power loss being
till the load flow solution is completed. It is therefore necessary to have one bus (i.e., slack bus)
which complex power is unspecified so that it supplies the difference in the total system load
losses and the sum of the complex powers specified at the remaining buses. By the same reasoning
slack bus must be a generator bus.
The Table 2.1 summarized the above discussion.

Table 2.1
Specified quantities

Bus rype

Can be determined

quantities

P,Q
P,
1,5

Load bus
Generator bus
Slack bus

2.3.2

lvl

vl,5
Q,5
P,Q

lv

Representatlon of Transmlssion Llnes

flow study is an aspect of the symmetrical steady state operation. the three phase
is solved on per phase basis. Also, only positive sequence equivalent circuits of the system
Since the load

are considered.

The network model of a power system, it is sufficiently accurate to represent a short line by a
impedance and a long line by a nominal n model.

2.3.3

Representatlon of Transformels

A power transformer without tap-changing facility is represented by a lumped series positive

The transformers with tap changing facility and the phase shifting transformers are discussed below
2.3.3.1 fixed top:elting lronrlormers: A transformer with a fixed tap setting and connected
7' and'q' is represented by its positive sequence series impedance /admittance in series with
ideal auto transfbrmer having a turns ratio of d : 1 as shown in Fig. 2.1.

buses

bus

a:t
Fig.

2.1

Transformer with a rtxed. tap

se*itg

Load FIow Studies 69

From the Fig. 2.1,

v,

Tlrr:

and

l,o

...(2.r\

(Vr -Vq)Ypq

...(2.2)

From equations (2.1) and (2.2)

'r:4:W"r,

...(2.3)

'aa

Y,:+

ad

...(2.4\

Substituting V, from equation (2.4) ln equation (2.3)

L
,,:(\-%l
' \4
',)

...(2.s',)

Similarly
I,r

(Vs

-Y)Yrn

: (Nq-U)+

'

The above transformer connected between the buses

ndel

as shown in

anid

'4'

busq

is represented by an equivalent n

Fig. 2.2.
bus P,

lo

Eig'

ftom Fig.

'p'

" '(2'6',)

2'2

2.2,
ln: (Yo-Vr)Yn

+ VpYB
lo= (Yr-Vr)Ye + V4Yc

...(2.7)
...(2.8)

Solving equations (2.5) to (2.8), we ger

"o: *,

YB

:(:

(' -i)'".:
!b mathematical model given in equation (2.9)

,)"...(2.e)
is used to represent a transformer with fixed tap

in load flow sordies.

Iop thonging under lood tronslormer : In the case of a tap changing under load (TCUL)
, the tapping is changed i.e., the value of 'c'is varied to maintain the voltage magnitude
hr the specified tolerances. The load flow equationi are solved by numerical methods involving
rErlrin number of iterations. The value of 'a' is changed normally once in two iterations, with this
lq: of transformer also represented by an equivalent n model.

7A Elrctrical

Power

2.3.3.3 Phose:tiltirq lronelorners: It is used to advance the phase angle of the bus,voltage.
represented by an ideal transformer as in previous cases but wittr a turns ratio which is a
number. Let the turns ratio be (a, + 7br). The transformer is represented as shown in Fig. 2.3.
Fictitious
lro

Jtr

(a. +j

Fig.

2.3

bJ, ,r,!. '*

Phose sbifting

*ansfonnn

Neglecting losses, for the transformer

lrn:

and

(V, -Y,)Yp,t

From equation (2.10)

Substituting

l'o
(a, + ib')"

,:
'P
I., from

l,
a' - ib'

equation (2.11) in equation (2.L2)

. - (v,-vr)Y,
'n--f,j4

:[#_",] #rv. :
:

(Vp

-(a, * ibr)Vq)

u,,,
as + Jos

from equation

dh

In a similar way
Io

= (Y, - V)

Ypq

:[', .ut ]t
:

[(a, +

jb)Vq-Vi&

For the convenience of nodal analysis, the phase shifting transformer is represented
lbllowing model
and

lr:YoYro*YoY*
lr=YrY*+YoY*

It

Load. Flow

Studies

71

Solving equations (2.13) to (2.15), we get

Yro:

Y -It can be observed

t3.4
Ib

1o*ur1,Ypq:
Y*

Ynn

- jb,)

(a,

:Y

*^rJ;:r-9'DrydYw
>

Gharacterlstics,of Load Models

of nearly all loads to voltage changes can be represented by some combination of

impedance, constant current and constant power (or MVA). Actually, the constant current
d is unnecessary as it is nearly equivalent to 50Vo constant impedance load combined with 50%
iE lrnt power load. It has been found convenient to retain the constant current model as it is easily
oqrehended and is frequently used in the absence of more complete data. Figs. 2.4 and2.5 show
th relationships of load current aqd power with voitage for three simple load types.
Tb constant power type load representation is the most severe representations from the system
ffiity point of view because of the affect in amplifying voltage oscillations. For example, a drop in
*te will cause an increase in load current resulting a further voltage drop.
f.mversely, constant impedance load have a decided damping effect on voltage oscillations.
response

Esant

Loaa cunent

0.8

1'o
Eig.

2.4

----rl.'*n"

1'4

Retatiowhip between load curyent and nodc wbage for siwple had.

1.0

1.2

types

1.4

-->Voltage

Fig. 2.5 Relotionship

between load. ond. node wltage

for

situple toad types

Load Flotu Studres 77

(ii) The other elements are called otT-diagonal elements. These are weaker in thbir magnitudes.
buses are increased, most of the off-diagonal elements will be zero.
(iv) If an inducting shunt element is added to the bus, it witl strengthen the magnitude of total
self admittance of that bus and does not change the magnitude of mutual elements. This will be

(iifi As the number of

vice-versa

if

the added shunt element to the bus is capacitive.

The net injected complex power into bus

Sr

Pr +7Q,

Il

V,

Frrom equation (2.17)

Sr

Pr *"/Qr

Vl + Yt2 V2 t

V1 (Y11

Y13 V3)*

: lvrlei6,,ly,,l e.r3r, I v1 | d6, + I Yrz fen lY2l d6, + I Y,r I eis" lYzl ru'): lVr2y11 lg-10,, + lvr Vzy,z lel(6,-62-6,,) + lVrV:y,: lel(6,-6:-E':) ...(z.zl)
I

g{arating the real and imaginary parts of equation (2.21)

fb

real part is,

Pr
lV,'Y,,1 cos

0,,

lVr Vz Yrzl

cos (6,

- 6,i + lVr V: Y,rl

6z

cos (5,

- 6:-

0r:)

(2.22)

imaginary part is

Qr: [l V,'Y,, lsin0,r + lvrv:Yrz

lsin(61-62-0rz) +

lvrvrYr: lsin(6,-6r-0r:)]

]hilarlyrealandreactivepowerinjectedintobus2andbus3.
hgrneral. tbr 3 bus system

Pr:

I Yo'Yo, I cos0r,

IN,
Q=l

YrY*lcos(5r-Dq-ee,)

*p

: I lV, v, Yr,
q=l

cos (6,

- 6, -

opq), for

: 1,2,3

...(2.24)

...(2.25)

Ihilerly,
Qp

: IV,
q=l

YnYorlsin (6r - 6q- 0/,q). for p

1,2,

GAUSS SEIDEL METHOD

iterative algorithm for solving a set of non-linear algebraic equations. To start with reasonable
ralues, assumed tbr all the unknown quantities. The assumption is based on experience. For
hrses, the magnitude and phase of (bus) voltages are unknown. Some reasonable values are
forthese. If we choose the same values forall the P-Q bus voltages, usually 1.0 Z0o p.u.,
*srmption is called a flat voltage start, for P - V buses, some reasonable value (usually 0') is
for the voltage phase angle. Then, using these assumed values as well as specified values, a
g of bus voltage magnitudes and phase angles are computed as explained below. The voltage
riude and phase angle are known or specified for a swing bus and hence remain fixed, i.e.,
throughout the computational process.

78

Etectrical Power System Analysis

2.5.L

P-V Buses are Absent

Let there be a total 'n ' number of bpses.
WhenthererisnoP-Vbusesarepresent,thatmeans,wehaven-lloadbtrsesorP-Qbuses

present. the remaining one bus is swing bus.

Unknown variables are

Yp:

I Vr 1

ei6' p :2, ..., n

* 1, is slack bus

Vz, Vr , ... ,Y oand complex power Sr : Pr + jQ1, at the

buscanonlybedetermined.if theunknown I Vp land6ratthe(n - l)loadbusesaredetermined
The current entering intopth bus of an'n 'bus'system is given by
which are (n

- l) complex unknowns

Ir: iv,
q=l

Yr, -vtYpp+

Luouo*p:2,3,...,n

n;;

The complex power injected into pd'bus is

Sp

(or)

Si

P,

* jQo: Yol,

P,

-iQr: v*rt,

to: (pr_ierl tV)

Note. The load flow solution can be solved more easily if

I,

rather than

I|.

From equation (2.26). we get

u,:
Substituting

I, from equation

For Gauss iterative

*[,, arr,J

(2.27) in equation (2.28\

method
/
\
I
-J?,
v"**ro Y,, In, -frr,,u;l
*

I t"; t"

,,ri,'

'

The bus voltage equation (2.30) can also be solved by the Gauss-Seidel method. For this
*
the new calculated voltage Vr* t immediately replaces Vrt and is used in the solution of sut
calculations. For Gauss Seidel method the equation (2.30) can be modified as

I
v-,+,'P -'-[

tt+
tr,,

-ir,,v;*,- q=p+t
,;,0

"r"rl

I-oad. Ftow Shrdres 79

prior to bus
The second term on the R.H.S. of the equation (2.31) is clear beeause the voltage
iteration.
the
current
should correspond to the value as calculated during

p'

many arithmetic
Computing time can be reduced to considerable extent by performing as
means that the
This
computation'
operations as possible before starting the repetitive iterative

performed once and for

arithmetic operations which do not change during the iterative process should
all at the staiting. Since P, Q and Y at a bus don't changO-with iterations'

P'6. :

Let

"lQn

Y"

"

forp = 2, 3, ...,

* l, slackbus

,*:?*,

The equation (2.31) can be written

v^r * r

'P

...(2.32)

tt

for

...(2.33')

2; 3, ..., n

4:1,2, "' n, q*P

as

ol,

- ir,

vk

+r

- Lrrrul

..,(2.34\

q=p+l
(vj). h
the acceleration
L5.l.t Acrelerolion lodor: The convergence Ii-. ,i*". be speeded up*by the .use .ofgiven
by
is
(/c
iEration
p;us,
+
l)th
the
the accelerated value of voltage at
r"r tfr.
;;

vj,l"'.,:vo*+cr(vpft*t-vr*)

"'(2'35)

rhere cr is a real number called the acceleration factor. Use of acceleration factor reduces the total
<
A
nmber of iterations required considerably. A generally recommended range is 1'3 cr S 1'6'
the
from
in
divergence
result
even
times
some
rrong choice of cr may indeed slower convergence or
olution. The Gauss-ieidel method with the use of acceleration factor is known as the method of
sccessive over relaxation.

15.1.2

l.

Algorithm lorGours -seidel method when PV bus is obsent

Read system data and formulate the

2. AssumeinitialbusvoltagesVro

Y"r.
1

+i0' for p :2,3, "',

+ 1, slackbus
:
e
AV.r*
Oand
3. Set iterationcountft
|
I
4. Compute A, and Br., from equations (2.32) and (2'33)
5. Set bus count P : I

6. If bus is PQ bus, then

(i) Comput" Vr* * I from equation (2.34)
(il) Compute aVpk - voo*' -vro

If
(lii)
7.
E.

9.

lAvr*l)lAV,o,*l

Assign new voltage to old

..r.,yrr _ vro *

Otherwise (slack bus) go to next bus

Increment the bus count, P : P t I
Check all buses are taken into account. IfP < n, then go to step 6 and repeat.

Checkconvergence
If I 4V,,,,* | 2 e, then increment iterationcount k
10. Calculate line power flows and slack bus power-

1, go to step 5 repeat'

80

Electricat Pouer System Ancrlysls

2.5.1

.3

Ilow, thort lor Gouss.Seidel ,method when PV bus is obsent

system data and formulate the Yor"

Assume initial bus voltages Voo = 1 + j0, P = 1, 2, 3, ...,n

*1
Set iteration count k = 0, and lA

Set bus count P =

Compute

V^

V-,,

|=e

fronr eqn. (2.34)

kk+1k

laV,

l=Vo

-Vp

BuscountP=P+1

into account

Iteration count

k=k+1

aVr", l<g
line power flows and slack bus power

2.5.2

Gaus+Seldel Method when PV Buses are Present

Some of the buses in a 'n' bus power system are voltage controlled buses. where P and I
but Q and 6 are unknowns. Let the buses be numbered as

p: l, slackbus
p :2,3, ..., i, PQ buses
p : i + l, i + 2,..., n, PVbuses

I specified

I-oad FIow Studres 81

At the voltage controlled buses the rnaximum and minimum reactive powers are specified and the
relue

must lie between these limits and also voltages at these buses are also specified.

<

i-e-.

Qp rnin

lvrl:lvpl,p"".

Qp

Qp

,nu^

For PQ bus the voltage calculation as usual in previous case.

For the pth PV bus, we have to maintain the magnitude of voltage at a specified value I Vp lrp"..
Tb voltage at the PV bus is controlled by controlling Qr. Therefore, the values of Q, and 6, are to
h rpdated in every iteration, this is as follows :

Qr,

fnl

- m I vrZrorv, l, for P : i + l, i

lq=r

* 2, ..., n

The revised value of Q, is obtained from the abore equation by substituting most updated values

nteqes on the right hanh side. Thus for (k

Qk+l:-Im

[ef

of

l)th iteration

Z",,vi*'

(uii,i,",

rr]

...(2.36)

for P:i+l,i+2,.'.,n
The revised value of 6, is obtained frorn equation (2.34) as

6r**'-zYr**'
6,t'* t : Angle

d{i!,t--

I "'
ao*t

p-l

,,, u;l
, - 2rrr vf *' - q=p+t

(vr)

o*=;

for P:i+I,i+2,
*!c

Th limits of reactive

Q,,o*

t:

k+r

....

Pr_jQI,-'

...(2.38)

power can be checked and fixed as given below

[Qr.,,

lQrmax,

...(2.37)

ir Ql*r ( Qr *i,

ifQ;.'

>Qp,"*

.'
loi.' , if Qp.in . Qf . Q^no*

(p

i+

l,i

+ 2, ..., n)

--.(2.39)

ffiany limit (either maximum or minimum) is violated, then that bus is treated as the PQ bus. But
*
subsequent computation iteration, Qro ' cornes within the limits then the bus is converted
to the PV bus.

ffir
E

82

Electricat Pouser Sgstem AnalUsis

2.5.2.1 Algorithrn lor Gouss-Seidelmelhod when PV bus is presenl

l.

Read system data and formulate the Yso.

2.

Assume initial bus voltages

Vro

1+

j0,

for

p : 2,3, ..., n
*

1 slack bus

0and I AV.r* | :

3. Setiterationcountk
e
4. Compute A, and B, fiom equations (2.32) and (2.33)
' 5. set bus count p : 2
6. If bus is PQ bus, then
(i) Comput" Vr* * 1 from equation (2.34)
(ii) Compute AVpft: Yoo *'-Yro

If
(iii)

lAVrol>lAv.,*l

Assign new voltage to old

i.e., Y ,k

Vro

7. If bus is PV bus, then

(i) Comput" go* I for the PV bus using equation (2.36)
(ii) Check the limits ol Qro * I and set according to equation (2.39)
If
If

no limit is violated, set Q1;*

any limit is violated, set Q1;*

(iii) lt Qri, : l, compute the voltage using equation (2.34)

(iv) If Qri,n : 0, then
vro * ' : Vp.p"" Z6; * t
where 5ro

(v)

'

is calculated from equation (2.37)

Assign new voltage to old

i.e.,Yrk

8.
9.

Vro

Increment the bus count,

: p*

Checkall buses are taken into account

lf p < n, then go to step 5 and repeat.

10. Checkconvergence

IflAVmaxl2e,then
increment iteration count &

.1.

k + 1, go to step 5 and repeat.

Calculate line power flows and slack bus power.

,1

Load. Flott,

,J'J..Z

How chort lorGousr'seidelmethod wten PV bus is present

Read system data and formulate the Y

Assume initial bus voltages

'

3=1

+j0, p=2,3,...,i, PQbus

Set iteration count k = 0, and

*1.slack bus

IAV*

|=e

Compute Ap for P = 2,3, ..., i and Bpq lot p = 2, 3, .'., n

q = 1'2, ..-, n' p
from eqns. (2.32) and

(2.33)

and Vohl=

buscount,p=p+

lncrement iteration count k= k +

lVe

l"*" z6ro'

Studies 83

ilf

.flea*.ieel' Power

Analysls

2-6 NEWTON-RAPHSOf{'S METHOD

The number of nurnerical solution methods
are available for load flow solution,
a.mong those Nr

*' ;;!; r,"n"'*i'i,o ffi:;'J:#"#t:J

powe,rur technique rt
quadratic rate of convergence, whereas
LlX,l""#X31^::.,::::::'i1:l'-1]'^PJ
the Gauss-s"iu.i rra"ttoffi
Consequently, for this method does not
necessitate the use or
factor and also
to the selection of slack bus.
"c".i.r"tion
N-R method can be appried to the load flow
sorution in a number
used (l) rectangular coordinates and (il) polar
coordinates.

2.6.1,

of ways, the most

N-R Method UsinE Rectangular Coordlnates

In this formulation the load flow equations

are expressed in rectangular form. consider
an ,n,
power system.
We know the power at bus p is

Pp-iQp: V;I/,

: vofv*v,
q=l

y): ro-tf,
Yq:eqtjfq
: Grr - iBn,
Y
ro

Consider
and

Substituting rhe above quantities'in

Pp

-iQp

.q*iio,

@p-tfp)

i(o,

,r:

2Vr("n
and the imaginary part of equation
e.a\ is

Pp

- .Ero)(ro * j.fn)

Q=l

The real part of equarion (2.41) is

o,

(2.40)

Gon

* frBnr)* fn(fo G*

rnBr)l

* f,B*) - ,o(fo c* - e,B*)f

The real and reactive power at each bus
are the function of ,e, and,f ,

I[,

(ro G,o

Thus

8t

(e, J)

ll;';lr,T*l1Y,T*::::8,1i'f*

,,,,',,,; ;:1'1
diife;;f;#il:"riiilXlil[
fii

given ngJver.sv-stem consisringn buses,

a slack bus and all remainins buses
are toaaLuses. The

in real and reactive

po*"rrio

change

^Pe:
and

in .e, and

,f,

takethe form as

i-*o,.f,* o,

^s:E**,.2**

Load Ftou: Studies '85

rhere AP, and AQ, represent the differences between the specified and the calculated values of P, and
(2.43).In short the equations (2.45) md (2.46\ for all
Q, respectively using equations (2.42) and
(a - 1) buses can be written in matrix form as

l-pl
loal
rhere Jl, J2, J3 and

Ja

: I-1, I r"l l-ael

...(2.47)

L:;i:;lL^;l

are the elements of the Jacobian and are first order partial derivatives.

The elements of the Jacobian matrix can be derived from the equations (2.42) and (2.43'1.
The diagonal elements of J1 are

aP-:

fr

2e,

G*

frBrr'- fpB* * Ek,

rn + fn

*)

.Q.48)

*J'

From equatior. (2.26) net current injection is

Y: q=l
fv,nv,
: Yppr, * fronu,
,;i
rp:

co +

idp: (cpp-iBpp)(eo+if)

* i(o*
,=*,

iB*\(rn* ifn)

Separating the real and imaginary parts

The reat

part,

cp: pGpp * frBo,

* LP, Gnn + fnB*)

...(2.4g)

o =*'o

rrd imaginary

part,

dp: foG*-

eoBo,

* fio

oo

- rrB*)

...(2.50)

*p
The equation (2.48) can be written
aP..

as

c,

...(2.51)

e*p

...(2.52)

eoGw--frBrr+

fr:

The off-diagonal elements of J1 are

aP.-

fr

,pG*-f,,Boo,

The diagonal elements of J2 are

aP-:

d
(r

2frGo, *

7,(t,
+p

G,, - e,Bo,)

*:pBpp+fpcpp+dp

...(2.53)

86

Electrica.L Power

Off-diagonal elements of J2 are

aP_

t:roB*+fpce(t,q*p

Similarly,
Diagonal elements of J, are

eoB* * frGoo- d,

Off-diagonal elements of J3 are

*
Diagonal elements

: erB* * f

oGoq,

q* p

" :b:*

ff:f'Bon-enG*tc'

and off-diagonal elements of Jn are

}:

-rpG*+fpBpq,q*p

Symmetry property in Jacobian matrix : By careful examination of the off-diagonal

of the submatrices as

fJipq: -Uqjpq
dP, _ _19"

i.e.,
and

dr,

Uzlpq :

Ilzlpq

aPe

:
of,t

i.e.,

fq

aQe
dro

This relationship reduces the efforts considerably as it is enough only to determine the
elements of any two sub-matrices.

off

2.6.1,2 When PV buses ore presenl: For a PV bus, the reactive power Q, is not specified but the
magnitude I V, I is specified.

Thus

lVul': ro'+fi

Therefore, the following equation replaces equation (2.46) for each

pv

bus

l^vpl,:u{;f a,e,*ry**,
The total number of equations considered in this case are fixed and equal to 2 (n
When PV bus is present the equation (2.47) can be modified as

- l\.

lil l:fir i:l;;r

L

The elements of J1, Jr, J3 and Ja are given by equations (2.51) to (2.58). The elements of
can be determined from equation Q.6l).

J5

laad Flow Studies 87

The diagonal elements of J, are

ry*:zp

...(2.64\

The diagonal elements of Ju are

ulu,1,

_ .r,
{f,, :.,,

...(2.6s)

The off-diagonal elements of J, and Ju submatrices are zaro

?lv,r' :o
:
ryr
duo

a!.,

...(2.66)

trfe

lrlS

Algodthrn for N'R reetonglor oordinore method whin pv bus ir obsent

l.

Read system data and formulate the

2.

Assume initial bus voltages Vrl

3.

Set iteration count,

tl.

Set bus count, p :

t:

yn*
t * j0, for p

: 2,3, ..., n
* 1, slack bus

0 and eonvergence criteria

I
5. Check type of bus. If bus is slack bus go to step 6.
Otherwise.

if

bus is PQ bus, then

(i) Evaluate the active and reactive powers Prt and Qr& using equations (2.42)
(ii) Compute Lppk : pp rp." - ppt.r1

and

6.

4Qro

Increment the bus count,

Qp rp..

9-

"ur

then go to step 5 and repeat.

Compute the largest of the absolute of the residue.

Checkconvergence

If

the residue > e

(i)
(ii)

compute rhe elements of Jacobian matrix using equations (2.51) to (2.5g)

Cgmpute voltage increments A, eok andA/rt using equation (2.47)and new bus voltages
o k + 1 _o k

-p
and

-o *liern

frr*t=1rk+Lfok

(iir) go*Oute I V,,r I, cos 6, and sin 6, for all buses

(iD Check the limits of voltage and ser
I vrol : I vp lnm,if I vr* I < I vp l,ntn'
i
Compute ,oo *':
I Vp lr,ncos IoanAff " : lV, l*,, sin 6o
(or) | vrk | : lv, Lo,*, if I vro I > v,
I
l*.*
Compute ,,,r * ' : ur, l*"*cos 6, and$t + : I vp l*"* sin 6,
I
1

D.

otherwise go to step 11.

Increment iteration counr, k :lk

!t-

Compute line power fldws ani{ slack bus power.

12.

(2.43)

- erk

: p+I

7- check all buses are taken into account .lf p <n,

t-

and,

srpp,;',
,i

+ I and go to step 5.

88

Electrtcctl Power System Analysis

2.b.1.4 [low rhort lor l{-R reclongulor toorrlinote

mefiod when PV bus is obssnt

Assume initial bus voltages Vro= 1

P, p = 2,3, ..., n

Set iteration count. k = 0. and converqence criteria =

using eqns. (2.421and (2.43)

Compute A

Pok

a Q^k=

P"ogq

Q-*-

Ppk

1@D

?nd

Q^k

Compute th6 largest absolute of the residue

using eqns. (2.51 ) to (2.58)

Compute a e"kanO A fot using eqn. (2.47)
Calculate erk'1= erk+ 6 grkgn6
fok*1=

apk+1 = lvol*cos 6,
fphl = lVrl*sin 6,

frk+6;rk

o*l';v

Lmd Ftow Shrdies 89

ttl.5

Algrirhm tor x'x

rffigrfur oodh*enetudur$y

l.

Read system data and formulate the

2.

Assume initial bus voltages

Vro

bu, htrree.ilr

yru,

: I +7O, for p :

3. Set ireration count, ft = 0 and converg"o."

"ri "rif
4. Set bus count, p : I
5. Check ifp is a slack bus. If yes go to step 7.

2,3, ...,

! ;'"""uut

Otherwise
(i) Compute Pre qnd ert using equilrions (2.42) and (2.43)
(ii) Compute A ppft pp.p". - pp*6 and
Check type ofbus. IfpV bus
(i) Check the limits ol ert and ser

6.

Qro

:
:

Q, min, if Qr* S 9.,n

Qp.,u*, 6 Qf > Qp

^u*(
a Q'o
'Jo"t
rf no rimit is violated *,;,*q:
If any limit is violated ser e1;. : I

Qp*"*

(rr) If Qri,,, = 0, then

Cornfur. I A Vr* l,
I v, lr,*" lyrr l,
ifbus is PQ bus, compure6 er* ep.u* - ept,r or A ert
r,-^-^9Tar:e

:
,
lI .- rncrement the bus count, p : p + I
I tt
I

epmin

- ept*r

check all buses are taken into accsunt.ltp <lz, then go to step 5 and repeat
Compute the largest of the absolure of the residue

rhe convergence
lI- Check
I If the residue > e
compute the elements of Jacobian marrix using equations (2.51) ro (2.5g)
I ,i, Cornpute
voltage increments L erk andA/rt using equation (2.47)and new bus
voltages
I t"l
,nft+leok+a,erkutd
1

g rL r* otherwise ro srep 12.

, {} ,-,";
so
I!L tlf ,buscompute
t
is PV bus, rhen

I
I
I
I

comPute

II
IE

It-

*t:

I Vp

lsp"q

cos 6, and

tk+t - |vp 1.p".sin6,

(Xherwise if bus is

(l)

pe

bus. then

Check the limits of voltage and set

lvrol

I
I

,,,0

Compute ,;*.'=

(or)

I v, l*rn, if lvrols I V, l_in

| V, l^,ncos Lrandfrk *, : I Vp l.insin6,

lvr*l:lv, l.u*,iflvrol>lv2 l*u*

: I v, lru* cos Lrandff * i r I V, l*"*sin6,
l,
C-oprre lrne power tiows and slack bus power.
Comoure

sroo.

,ur*

90

Electricat Power Sgstem Analysls

2.6.1.6 tlow thort Ior N'R rectongulor toordinote

method when PY bus

il prerent

Assume initial bus voltage Vpu =

1 slack bus

Set iteration count k = 0 and convergence criteria =

Set bus count P =

P" and Q,, unsing eqns (2.421and (2.43)

Compute

APj

= P,

"o*-

Pko*,

compute lavo l'=

t2
kr2
'lVDl
spec- 'IVD
I

buscountP=P+

of the.absolute of the residue

arj using qn. (2.47)

k+1kk
Calculate ep = ep + Aeo and
ktlkk

Compute
I

ro

aej

ano

fp

=fp +Afp

Load. Ftow Shrdies 91

lV"'I, cos 6p and sin

= lVpl

min

6p

cos 6r

= lVol"*" cos

= lVpl .;n sin 6r

ej.l
l*1

= lvol

.",

cos

= lvel .u* sin

6p

= lVol"r"" sin 6p

6o
Ep

lncrement iteration count, k = k +

N-R Method Using Polar Coordinates

h this formulation' the load flow equations are expressed in polar form. The total number of
qltions in rectangular coordinate version are2. (n- lf and in polai coordinate version are (2n
- Z - S)
bus system having one slack bus and 'g' voltage ront.oll"d (pV) buses. Thus the
F.n
use of polar
lh results in lesser number of equations and a smaller size of Jacobian as compared with the
mcangular form' This is a definite advantage of polar form over the rectangular forrnand
therefore,
rbgrneral polar form is used.
fle know fiom equation (2.40)

Pp-iQp:

ir;

Yn,Y,

...(2.67)

A=l

Ler

Ypr:Gro-iBrr: lypql Z-0*: lypql e-i|*

V;: IV, I e-i6, andV,, :1y,,1ei6,

Snbstituting the above quairtities ir"iequation (2.67;

Q=l

P,

: t

-iep

lYryonyole-iP*+5,,

-6,)

...(2.68)

ftparating the real ano imagina'lrt r.,, of equation (2.6s)

Tbe real part,

*,

: t

_n

dthe

imaginary part,

Qr,

: I

The real and reactive powers

*rge.

Thus

lv, Yo, v,lcos (or, * 5o - gr)

q=l

...(2.6e)

lYrYrrv,lsin(or,

"lalro

*6, - 6r)

bus are the function

Po= gr (6, I v 11
Q,: gr (6, l v l)

...(2.7O)

of magnitude and phase angle of bus

Wl

Electrical Pouer

2.6.2.1 Wtcn PV hscs arc nol FiGnft For a given power system consisting
assuming bus 1 is a slack bus and all remaining buses are taken as load buses.

'n'

number of bu

The differential equations which relate the change in real and reactive power
magnitude and phase angle of bus voltage take the form as

#r^vq I
E*AE,
+,4
=
#,^vq I
EHA6,
+E

Ap, =
Aep

',

to

change

...(2

...(z

where AP, and AQ, represent the differenees between the specified and the calculatedvalue of P,
Q, respectively using equations (2.69) and (2.70).

In shorr, the equations (2.71) and (2.72) for all (n

- l\ buses can,be represented

in matrix form

[APl= [], i lrl I aa I

Li;'i:;lLovrl'

L^el

The elements of the Jacobian matrix can be derived from the bus power equations.
The real power equation (2.69) can be written as

P,

=|

Yt,l2

lYr, lcos0r, * t lvt,Ywvnlcos(0,, *6, -5r)

,,=*,

The diagonal elements of J, are

aP.: *,*; AlurYrrYn

\..

and the off-diagonal elements of

aP_

lsin(orr+6r-6r)

1,tri,

lYrY*V, lsin(0rot6r-60),e*p

The diagonal elements of J2 are

IalVpl= z tI ypy*
t' P't'I cos sro* flyorYrlcos(0r, +6, - 6r)
o=*r,

and the off-diagonal elernents of

aP-

-1"r1

The reactive power equation

'

l,

are

I V, Yr, I cos (o,o

(2.7q

can be written as
n

Qp:

lv, l'lY*

* 6,- 6)' 4* P

| sinor,

q-l
*p

FtrYrrv, lsin (o*+ 6p-6q)

I
The diagonal elements of

J, are

,, Y*y,l cos (0,, + !r - 6/

| *a rn, off-diagonat elements oylj.aL

: - lv' YooYol cos (0,0 + 6o '
Jur*- ,:- - -,, t

":'rrrr*l

*ffi

sin(or,

* 6r-

6i)it'

...t2.80(r)I

q*p

6),4*p

"'(2'sl)

...(2.83)

may be noted that, do not:T-rh" symmetry jn,the Jacobian, if polar coordinates

are used.
',
in equation (2.74),the equarion (2.74)can be modified as
I f,o*.ur., if replace A I v I *

+/

I
I

I
I

[fi]

equations for the off-diagonal

Ih"
From

equation (2.77)

II
I

I
]
I

From equation

e84,

lYrYorv, lsin (lrq+

6e-6q)

*r, =
From equation (2.81)

:t

..

DQo

ffi
#,

lvo | : lYoYrov, lsin(oro+ 6,e-6q)

,

v, | : lYpywvo

,--: EQ'
t'o:
at =- - lv'Y'oY'
Hpq:
Nr,

I cos

(opr*6e-64)

lcos(0" + 6'-6')

,.requation (2.76),
equation

...(2.s7)

"'(2'88)

...(z.Bg)

Hm:B: lvolrBor-eo

(z.lsl, Npp :

...(2.86)

Lpq

:-'-lo,

equarions for the diagohal elelrients are

r-*

...(2.8s)

From equarion (2.79')

- n.

terms ai.e,

aP^

(2.83)
t':
Lrr:

tt
I uoobservedthat
tnat
'Dserveo

Ifl+l

Hpq,:5d

I
[I

:[?

.#,

I V, |

: I v,l, cpp + pp

.p.so)
...(z.gt)

94

Electricat Potuer System A

From equation

(2.80), rr,

Fromequarion(2.82),

t,:

#l

pn-Gpe

V, I

lvp

e, +

12

ypf Bpe

Thus with slight modification in equation (2J4), we can get the symmetry property
Jacobian, which is observed in the case ofexpressing Jacobian in rectangular coordinates.

2.6.2.2 When PV buses ore presenl: Now consider when PV buses are included in 'n' bus power
For a PV bus, the reactive power Q, is not specified and I v, I is fixed i.a., specified; A e,
appear on the left hand side of equation

'

(2.84)*O

v, :

lllil
lvrl

does not appear on the right hand

equation (2.s4) since A I

| 0. considerpe and qth buses are PQ buses and
PV buses. Then the Jacobian matrix can be written as

4ftbur
pth PQ bus

rtl' PV bus

p'h bus

rth bus

and sth

sthbu,

H,,
lu,

N,,

H,,

L,,,

J,,,

H,,

N,,

H,,

A6

qth Pq bus

Alvql

lv,

sth PV bus
A6.,

where.

Hrn

aP,.

aP_

55;'NP,:
r Ipq -dQr
aS., 'uP'l

a 1-v,1

v,

ffir,,r

2.6.2.3 Algorifim lor N-R polor roordinote method when pv

buses ore obsent

l.

Read system data and formulate the

2.

Assume initial bus voltage magnirudes I vr, I ano phase angles 610

Y"r.

forp : 2,3, ..., k

*l'slackbus
3. setiterationcountk:0andconvergencecriteria:e
4. Set bus countp : I
5. Check rype of bus, if bus is slack bus go to step 6. Otherrvise, if bus is PQ bus, then
(i) Evaluate the active and reactive powers prft and ert using equations (2.69) and, (2.70'11
(ii) Computg A ppt : pp.p... - Fp.ur
and AQrt : Qprp"" -Qpk*r
6. Increment the bus countp : p + I
7. check all buses are taken into account.lt p < n, then go to step 5 and repeat.
8. Compute the largest of the absolute of the residue.
9. Check convergence. If the residue > e
(i) Compute the elements of Jacobian matrix using equations (2.76) ro (2.83) using the
mated I V,, I and 6, from step 2.

I-ood

(ii)
(iii)

Prous

Studres 95

Compute A 6rk and A I Vrt I using equation (2.74)Compute new bus voltage magnitude and phase angle of all load buses

t.e.,

and

6ro*t:6r*+a6r*
t
Ivro* I: Ivet|+AIvroI

Otherwise go to steP 9.

10. lncrementiterationcountk : k + l withthesemodified

11. Compute line power flows and slack bus power.
12. Stop.

u.2.4

lV,

PV busel orc obsenl

flow rhort lor ll-R polor oordinole method rrlten

Assuming initial bus voltage magnihtde lVr"l and

phase angle

Set iteration count k =

16o0;

O,

for p = 2, 3, ...n,

and convergence criteria =

Set bus count P =

land6randgotostep5'

P"^ and Qo^ using eqns. (2.69) and (2.

lncrement bus count P =

th largest of the absolute of the

Compute the element of Jacobi

using eqns. (2.75\lo (2.42)
a6okand alvokl using e9n. (2.

av^k'1 l= v^kl + a lv^kl

lncremnt interation count

=k+

96

Ebctncal power

2.6.2.5

Algorithm lor

Sgrstem

l{-I

poftr oordhote morlnrd when pytums

oro presant

1.

Read system data and formulate ysu"

2.

Assume initiar bus voltage magnitude

v}

and phase angle

6! for all pe

angle 610 at all pV buses (except slack bus)

3.

Set iteration count &

o
Slffr*t
5'

0 and convergence criteria

:
6 Qr* :
A Prt

a[ pe buses

Pprp".

the residue

(ii)
(iii)

Ppk.r1

and Apr* for

a[ pv

buses using thb

rlld

Qrr*" - Qrt"ur

6. Compute the largest of the absolute

7. Check convergence

(i)

Prt and Qrt fo, all PQ buses and prt for alt pv
,(2.69)
buses using equations

compute A prt and A erk for

If

buses and

of the residue

Compute the elements of Jacobian

Compute A 6, and

!'

+iusing

marix

equation (2.84)

Update the riew vaJue-s of bus voltage magnitude

and phase
- -- angle of all
value ofph4$e angle for all pV UusJs using
expressions

pe

buses and

.6r**r-6r*+a6pr
and lyoo* t_l : lvrol *A lVprl
Otherwise go to step 9.

ail-pV buses and check

*ir::-9fothe {or
mcrement
iteration count /< : ,t * 1.

If not,

set

Qrt

e,oin

ep*

9. Coqpute line power flows and slack

bus power.
Stop.

ep

r.*. If

yes return to step 4

Qp,rtn

(or).set Qpk Qo.", as the case

may be treat this bus as a
the iteration codnt /c k + 1

10.

pe bus, return to step 4 and

i

Laad Ftou; Studies W

2.6.2.b tlow drort lor ll'R

polor toord[mta method when PV

nssume
and

6f

burr

ora present

for p = 2, 3, ..., n

V^ for p = 2,3,

... m i.e., PQ buses

Set iteration count k = 0 and convergence criteria =

for p

2, 3, ...,

for P = 2, 3, ...,

for p = 2, 3, ...,

PVbusp>m

Joo,forq=2,3,...

Compute Hro , and Noo

forg = 2' 3. "''n

lncrement bus

countP=P+1

Compute A16o I, for p = 2, ...,n

and#,
Compute

forp - 2,3 ...,m

6o
k+1
Vo

for p = 2, 3, ...,n
tor p =

2,2, ...,^

lncrement iteration count k = k +

9! pkrrrlvr,

L7

fuuser Sustem

I'EGI'I'PLED LOAD FIOW METHOD

An important characteristic of.an electric power

transmission system operating in steady state,
changes which occur in
bus active power due to small changes

as compared to their changes due

inius voltage magnitude

is very

to smail changes in bus vortage phase angre

(... , =

.1?Irtrix

sr

T,,

of J, of the racobian Matrix can be neglected

and to be rak
lT:::ki:1t""-:,^.:T::""f
as zero' The changes which occur in bus
reictive power due to;;ft;G:'t
i|Ji,'|,"r"
angle is quite small, when compared
to their changes due to small changes in bus voltage
mag

v)) ' so, all the elements of J, of the Jacobian Matrix can also
be negtected and to
* ,t -

taken as zero.

:lt;ll^iiJ

Then equation (2.74) simplifies to

till

,,,

In terms of the sub-matrices, the equation (2.g5) yields

the following two decoupled equations

AP:JrA6

and

AQ:JaAlvl

...(2.
The solution of these equations is less time
consuming ind the computer memory requiren
would be less since the.-elements of J, u.ilJ;
are zero and need not be stored. rurttreriimptincal
can be obtained by rewriting equatioi
e.qil as follows :

=rlr[ffi]
where

Lr, from equation (2.g3) can be'rewritten

as

ao"

L--:
r
,'r'ffi:Qp*lvel2Bpp
-pp rv
andLrn from equation (2.g6)

Lnr: lu, |

Dep

ffi

= | v, yoryol cos(or, + 6p-64)

Let J, be denoted by [H], then equation (2-96) gives

where

H,

from

equation,rffi;jfle rlwrtten

H--:
andHorrromequation

,ri;;:

DP'

#:

Hpq:*:
It can be seen

that

L*:

as

: lvP l'Bo'-Q'
,

lYrYoqv, lsin (orq*6e-6q)

Hrcfor q * p, q

and thus reduces the computation effort.

and

p: 2,3, ..., n
* l, slackbus

...(2.101)

Laad. Ftotu

Studies 99

2.8 FAST DECOUPLED LOAD FLOW METHOD

For routine solutions Newton-Raphson's method has more popular method. However, it is limited
use for small core applications. Whereas weekly convergent Gauss-Seidel method is the most
economical and it is not fast converge. If some valid assumptions are considered for practical power
rransmission sysrem, the fast decoupled load flow algorithm (FDLF) is simple, faster and more
reliable than N-R method and has lower storage requirements for entirely in core solutions.
The tbllowing valid assumptions can be made without introducing much error

Br, I V,l'
(rr) I 6, - 6, I is very small
(D

QP

11

and therefore, cos (60

6r) = 1'0

is verY small so, G, sin (6, - 6r) = 0'0

In view of the assumption (i), the equations (2.98) and (2.100) becomes

(rrr) G,

Hpp:L*: lVpf Bep

and in view

..'(2.102)

of assumprions (ii) and (iii), the equation (2.99) (or) equation (2.101) can be written

H*t:Lrr: lYoYrl {1Y,,, lsin0rrcos(6r-6r) + lY*l

: I V, Y,, I {Bpq cos (6, - 6r) + G* sin (6p - 6q)

:lvpv, l{Bp./+o}
: lVpYolBr*forq*p

as

cosOrnsin(6'-6')l

"'(2'103)

Computation of the elements of [H] and [L] using the above approximate expressions would be
faster. Hence. this method is called fast decoupled load flow method.

COMPARISON OF GAUSS.SEIDEL AND NEWTON-RAPHSON'S METHOD

2.9

N-R Method

G-S Method

4.

In this rnethod, tbr developing the program

rectangular coordinates are used.
It requires the fewest number of arithmetic
operations to complete an iteration and
requires less time per iteration.
The rate of convergence of this method is
slow, required more number of iteration to
obtain the solution.
The number of iterations of this method
increases directly as the number of buses of

5.

the power system.

In this method, convergence
the selection of a slack bus.

6.

For large system,

it is

is affected by

less accurate and

unreliable.
7.

It

z.LO

required less inemory space.

In this method polar coordinates are preferred

for developing program.

In this method, the elements of the Jacobian
are to be computed in each iteration. So the
time per iteration is more.
The rate of convergence of this method is
fast and required less number of iteration to
obtain the solution.
It is independent of the number of buses of
the system (vary 3 to 5 iteration).

for the selection of slack

the
convergence.
on
bus
It is more accurate and reliable.

It

does not effect

It

required more memory space.

COMPARISON OF DECOUPLED METHOD AND FAST DECOUPLED

METHOD WITH N.R METHOD

Decoupled Load FIow Method : It is simple and computationally efficient than the NewtonRaphson's method. The main advantage of this method compared to the N-R method is it reduces

l.fi,

Electricat power

memory requirement in storing the

Jacobian elements. Time per iteration
of this method is almost
arwavs take more number orit"ration,'"**
,oru,
$",il

;ffi::

;;;l"lir,,"

lr[:tli#l*:t

Fast Decoupled Load FIow Method

: It is superior than the N-R method
from the point of r
of speed and storage' For this method
theconvergence is geometric. It required
nonnally two to
ilR
method
rhis
is due to rhe
that the valid assumptions are considerd.

**-r;;;r
li:1,,?::lT.T:,::::::y:i f:,":*",",fr*
storage requirement,
a"*upt"ito"a'n"*

[ffit]:i::t-1t1fl]jY"|o.fl}h1
optimization
problems and conting"rr.y
the

ffi:"l[Xt;lh:::"'pute

for

l"'oti*"n'au"tion
matrix i,

"r";il'J:;;.illJ:fff"[*:i
*",t"il
inis me*roa is also usetul to so

ry;r",,;;xi;X#ffi:il:"ff*ff:

"r".v

ii*Joo

",

s matrix i,

"orri*t "r",

2,L7. CAtcutATtON OF L|NE Ftows

consider the rine connecting between
the busesp and as shown in Fig.
4
2. r0.
p

,ltpq
lpso

Fig.2.lO Pon
Power
zr lroflstnissinn
lroflstnitsian

:
r_ 'pq
V, and Vo :
spq

l,ine connected belween bavs pt

and q

Complex power injected into the line

from the ptr bus
Current injected by the ptr bus
Voltages at thepfr and
buses
4fr

Line series adrnittance

:
Line charging admittance at busesp
rp41, rq20
and 4 respectivery.
The current flowing from bus p
into the line is given by

lpo

Ipq=Ipqt*Ipqo
rhe comprex power ,or.","oi,,lu,*

I3.kl

J:J;T.bus

Soq:Prq+iQpq
= yrlnro
Substituting the

l,

from equarion e.l}4) into the equation

(2.105)
Sr, v, (v"; _- v'r)
*
v*ry*o,,l
!'oo

Similarly, the complex

v)yoJ;r rri".r"oi"r, ,{"'rri1"ililr?;

Sr,

in
.llf I-"*.".loss
th"p*
bus to 4,h bqs
i-e.,

4 is

tt",p"fl,

Y, [(V*,n-Y")!*ro
- V*,) y*

busp is

y*n!*,

1rr"'rtt*.'i*;ff.l lr:J"g:l
the power flows in the p _ q, line

PLpq: Sr, * s*

Total transmission losses can be

determined by summing
system.

a,

the line flows of the given