1/29/2013
30th Hands
Hands-On
On Relay
School
Generation Track
Overview Lecture
Generator Design, Connections, and
Grounding
1/29/2013
Generator Main Components
Stator
Core lamination
Winding
Rotor
Shaft
Poles
Slip rings
Stator Core
Source: www.alstom.com/power/fossil/gas/
1/29/2013
Stator (Core + Winding)
Winding Connections
Core Lamination
Winding (Roebel bars)
Typical Types of Generator Windings
Stator Winding: Random-Wound Coils
1/29/2013
Typical Types of Generator Windings
Stator Winding: Form-Wound Coils
Typical Types of Generator Windings
Stator Winding: Roebel Bars
1/29/2013
Roebel Bars Inside Stator Slot
Source: Maughan, Clyde. V., Maintenance of Turbine Driven Generators, Maughan Engineering Consultants
Stator Winding Combinations
Typical for Two- and Four-Pole Machines
1/29/2013
Series Connection of Roebel Bars
Series connection
Source:www.ansaldoenergia.com/Hydro_Gallery.asp
Rotor
1/29/2013
Classification of Synchronous
Generators
Synchronous Generator Classification
Cylindrical rotor
Rotor design
Salient-pole rotor
Direct
Cooling: Stator and
rotor
Indirect
Field winding
Brush
connection to dc
Brushless
source
Rotor Design
Salient-Pole Rotor
Cylindrical Rotor
1/29/2013
Two-Pole Round Rotor
Source: www.alstom.com
Salient Pole Rotor
Source:www.ansaldoenergia.com/Hydro_Gallery.asp
1/29/2013
Stator Winding Cooling
Indirectly Cooled
Directly Cooled
Cooling Ducts,
Water Cooled Bar
Rotor Winding Cooling
Indirectly Cooled
Directly Cooled
1/29/2013
Field Winding Connection to DC Source
Brush Type
Field Winding Connection to DC Source
Brushless
10
1/29/2013
Generator Station Arrangements
Generator-Transformer Unit
Generating Station Arrangements
Directly Connected Generator
11
1/29/2013
Synchronous Generator Grounding
IEEE C62.92.2-1989
Resonant g
grounding
g ((Petersen Coil))
Ungrounded neutral
High-resistance grounding
Low-resistance grounding
Low-reactance grounding
Effective grounding
Increasing Ground
Fault Current
Why Ground the Neutral?
Minimize damage for internal ground faults
Limit mechanical stress for external ground faults
Limit temporary/transient overvoltages
Allow for ground fault detection
Ability to coordinate generator protection with
other equipment requirements
12
1/29/2013
Ungrounded Neutral
No intentional connection to ground
g
Maximum ground fault current higher than for
resonant grounding
Excessive transient overvoltages may result
High-Resistance Grounding
Low value resistor connected to secondary of
distribution transformer
Resistor value selected to limit transient overvoltages
Maximum single-phase-to-ground fault current: 515 A
13
1/29/2013
Low-Resistance Grounding
Limit ground fault current to hundreds of
amperes to allow operation of selective
(differential) relays
Low temporary/transient overvoltages
Effective Grounding
A low-impedance ground connection
where: X0 / X1 3 and R0 / X1 1
Ground
G
d ffaultlt currentt is
i high
hi h
Low temporary overvoltages during phaseto-ground faults
14
1/29/2013
Generator Capability Curves
Defining Generator Capability
Curve provided by the generator manufacturer
Defines the generator operating limits during steady
state
t t conditions
diti
Assumes generator is connected to an infinite bus
Limits are influenced by:
Terminal voltage
Coolant
Generator construction
15
1/29/2013
Generator Capability Curve for a
Round Rotor Generator
Generator
Capability
Curve for a
Salient Pole
Generator
16
1/29/2013
Capability Curve Construction
Phasor Diagram Round Rotor Generator
Xd
P V I cos( )
E 0 sin( ) Xd I cos( )
V
E 0 sin(
i ( ) V I cos(( )
Xd
V
( BC ) V I cos( )
Xd
E0
E0
P
Xd I
Q V I sin( )
( E 0 cos(( )) V Xd I sin(
i ( )
V
(( E 0 cos( )) V ) V I sin( )
Xd
V
( AB) V I sin( )
Xd
17
1/29/2013
Power Angle Characteristic
P
Operation with Constant Active Power
and Variable Excitation
C
Xd I
Xd I
E 0
Xd I
E0
E0
V
B
Q
Xd 1.6
V 1.00
I 1 36.87 E 0 2.3433.15
I 1.6 60 E 0 3.46621.7
I 1.1345 E 0 1.3178.5
18
1/29/2013
Power Angle Characteristic
P
E 0 2.3433.15
E 0 3.46621.7
E 0 1.3178.5
V-Curves
I ( p.u )
cos cap.
cos inductive
E 0 (p.u.)
Excitation Current
19
1/29/2013
Operation with Constant Apparent
Power and Variable Excitation
C
E0
Xd I
Xd 1.6
V 1.00
I 1 36.87
Operation with Constant Excitation
and Variable Active Power
Theor. Stability Limit
E0
Xd I
C
E0
I
Xd I
20
1/29/2013
Theor. Sttability Limit
Capability Curve Round Rotor
P (Real Power)
V
(( E 0 cos( )) V ) V I sin( )
Xd
E0 0
- VV
Q
Xd
V
E 0 sin( ) V I cos( )
Xd
E0 0
P0
max.
Xd 1.6
Q (Reactive Power) V 1.0
- VV
0.625
Xd
Generator Fault Protection
21
1/29/2013
Generator Fault Protection
Stator phase faults
Stator ground faults
Field ground faults
External faults (backup protection)
Stator Phase Fault Protection
Phase fault protection
Percentage differential
High-impedance differential
Self-balancing differential
Turn-to-turn fault protection
Split-phase differential
Split-phase self-balancing
22
1/29/2013
Phase Fault Protection
Percentage Differential
Dual-Slope Characteristic
23
1/29/2013
Phase Fault Protection
High-Impedance Differential
Phase Fault Protection
Self-Balancing Differential
http://www.polycastinternational.com/old_cat/pdfs/Section4/Section4-Part2.pdf
24
1/29/2013
Stator Winding Coils with Multiple Turns
Turn-to-Turn Fault Protection
Split-Phase Self-Balancing
25
1/29/2013
Turn-to-Turn Fault Protection
Split-Phase Percentage Differential
Stator Ground Fault Protection
High-impedance-grounded generators
Neutral fundamental-frequency overvoltage
Third-harmonic undervoltage or differential
Low-frequency injection
Low-impedance-grounded generators
Ground overcurrent
Ground directional overcurrent
Restricted earth fault (REF) protection
26
1/29/2013
Ground Fault in a Unit-Connected
Generator
High-Impedance Grounded Generator
Neutral Fundamental Overvoltage
Fault Location/
% of Winding
Voltage V
F1 / 3%
Vnom
3
Vnom
85%
3
F2 / 85%
3%
27
1/29/2013
Generator Flux Distribution in Air Gap
Total Flux
Fundamental
Harmonics
Generator Flux Distribution in Air Gap
High-Impedance Grounded Generator
Neutral Third-Harmonic Undervoltage
GSU
F1
(3)
59GN
OR (2)
27TN
Full Load
Full Load
No Load
VN3
No Load
VN3
VP3
VP3
No Fault
Fault at F1
28
1/29/2013
High-Impedance Grounded Generator
Third-Harmonic Differential
GSU
(3)
(3)
59GN
VN3
VP3
k VP3 VN 3
Pickup Setting
59THD
Third-Harmonic Differential Element
Generator Winding Analysis
Generator data
18 poles
216 slots
Winding pitch
Full pitch = 216/18 = 12 slots
Actual pitch = 128 120 = 8 slots
Actual pitch / full pitch = 8/12 = 2/3
29
1/29/2013
Full-Pitch Winding
2/3 Pitch Winding
Removes Third Harmonic
30
1/29/2013
High-Impedance Grounded Generator
Low-Frequency Injection
GSU
(3)
OR (2)
I
R
59GN
V
64S
Coupling
Filter
Low-Frequency
Voltage Injector
Protection
Measurements
100% Stator Ground Fault Protection
Elements Coverage
31
1/29/2013
Low-Impedance-Grounded Generator
Ground Overcurrent and Directional Overcurrent
Low-Impedance-Grounded Generator
Ground Differential
32
http://www05.abb.com/global/scot/scot235.nsf/ve
eritydisplay/beaaeb0123376541832573460062a765
5/$file/1vap428561-db_byz.pdf
1/29/2013
Low-Impedance-Grounded Generator
Self-Balancing Ground Differential
Zero-Sequence CTs
Zero-sequence CT
33
1/29/2013
Field Ground Protection
Field Ground Protection
Types of rotors
Winding failure mechanisms
Importance of field ground protection
Field ground detection methods
Switched-DC injection principle of operation
Shaft grounding brushes
34
1/29/2013
Salient Pole Rotor
Source:www.ansaldoenergia.com/Hydro_Gallery.asp
A Round Rotor Being Milled
Source: Maughan, Clyde. V., Maintenance of Turbine Driven
Generators, Maughan Engineering Consultants
35
1/29/2013
Round Rotor End Turns
Source: Main Generator Rotor Maintenance Lessons Learned - EPRI
Source: Main Generator Rotor Maintenance Lessons Learned - EPRI
Two-Pole Round Rotor
Source: www.alstom.com
36
1/29/2013
Two-Pole Round Rotor
Source: www.alstom.com
Two-Pole Round Rotor
Source: www.alstom.com
37
1/29/2013
Round Rotor Slot Cross Section
Coil Slot
Wedge
R t i i Ri
Retaining
Ring
Creepage Block Insulation
Retaining Ring
Copper Winding
Winding Short
Winding Ground
Turn Insulation
End Windings
Winding Ground
Slot Armor
Field Winding Failure Mechanisms in
Round Rotors
Thermal deterioration
Thermal cycling
Abrasion
Pollution
Repetitive voltage surges
38
1/29/2013
Salient Pole Cross Section
Pole Body
Pole Collar
Winding Turn
Turn Insulation
Winding Ground
Pole Body
Insulation
Winding
g Short
Pole Collar
* Strip-On-Edge
Field Winding Failure Mechanisms in
Salient Pole Rotors
Thermal deterioration
Abrasive particles
Pollution
Repetitive voltage surges
Centrifugal forces
39
1/29/2013
Importance of Field Ground
Detection
Presence of a single point-to-ground in field
g circuit does not affect the operation
p
of
winding
the generator
Second point-to-ground can cause severe
damage to machine
Excessive vibration
Rotor steel and / or copper melting
Rotor Ground Detection Methods
Voltage divider
DC injection
AC injection
Switched-DC injection
40
1/29/2013
Voltage Divider
Field Breaker
Rotor and Field Winding
R3
+
R2
Exciter
Brushes
R1
Sensitive Detector
Grounding Brush
DC Injection
Field Breaker
Rotor and Field Winding
+
Exciter
Brushes
Sensitive Detector
+
DC Supply
G
Grounding
di
Brush
41
1/29/2013
AC Injection
Field Breaker
Rotor and Field Winding
+
Brushes
Exciter
Sensitive Detector
G
Grounding
di
Brush
AC Supply
Switched-DC Injection Method
Field Breaker
Rotor and Field Winding
+
Brushes
Exciter
R1
Grounding
Brush
R2
Rs
Measured Voltage
42
1/29/2013
Switched DC Injection Principle of Operation
Voscp
VDC
Voscn
Vrs
Rx
Cfg
Vosc
R
Measured Voltage (Vrs)
Vrs
Rs
Shaft Grounding with Carbon Brush
43
1/29/2013
Shaft Grounding with Wire Bristle Brush
Source: SOHRE Turbomachinery, Inc. (www.sohreturbo.com)
Generator Abnormal Operation
Protection
44
1/29/2013
Generator Abnormal Operation
Protection
Thermal
Overvoltage
Current
unbalance
Abnormal
frequency
Loss-of-field
Out-of-step
Motoring
Inadvertent
energization
Overexcitation
Backup
Stator Thermal Protection
Generators With Temperature Sensors
45
1/29/2013
Stator Thermal Protection
Generators Without Temperature Sensors
I 2 I P2
T ln 2
2
I k I
NOM
Current Unbalance Causes
Single-phase transformers
Untransposed transmission lines
Unbalanced loads
Unbalanced system faults
Open phases
46
1/29/2013
Generator Current Unbalance
Produces negative-sequence currents that:
Cause magnetic flux that rotates in opposition to rotor
Induce double-frequency currents in the rotor
Rotor-Induced Currents
47
1/29/2013
Negative-Sequence Current Damage
Negative-Sequence Current Capability
Continuous
Type of Generator
I2 Max %
Salient pole (C50.12-2005)
Connected amortisseur windings
10
Unconnected amortisseur windings
Cylindrical rotor (C50.13-2005)
Indirectly cooled
10
Directly cooled, to 350 MVA
351 to 1250 MVA
8 (MVA 350) / 300
1251 to 1600 MVA
48
1/29/2013
Negative-Sequence Current Capability
Short Time
I 22t K 2
Type of Generator
I22t Max %
Salient pole (C37.102-2006)
40
Synchronous condenser (C37.102-2006)
30
Cylindrical rotor (C50.13-2005)
Indirectly cooled
30
Directly cooled, to 800 MVA
10
Directly cooled, 801 to 1600 MVA
Negative-Sequence Current Capability
Short Time
49
1/29/2013
NegativeSequence
Overcurrent
Protection
T
K2
I2
I NOM
Common Causes of Loss of Field
Accidental field breaker tripping
Field open circuit
Field short circuit
Voltage regulator failure
Loss of field to the main exciter
Loss of ac supply to the excitation system
50
1/29/2013
Effects of Loss of Field
Rotor temperature increases because of
eddy currents
Stator temperature increases because of
high reactive power draw
Pulsating torques may occur
Power system may experience voltage
collapse or lose steady-state stability
Negative-Sequence Current Caused
Damper Winding Damage
Damper
Windings
51
1/29/2013
LOF Protection Using a Mho Element
LOF Protection Using NegativeOffset Mho Elements
52
1/29/2013
LOF Protection Using Negative- and
Positive-Offset Mho Elements
Zone 2 Setting Considerations
53
1/29/2013
Possible Prime Mover Damage
From Generator Motoring
Steam turbine blade overheating
Hydraulic turbine blade cavitation
Gas turbine gear damage
Diesel engine explosion danger from
unburned fuel
Small Reverse Power Flow
Can Cause Damage
Typical
yp
values of reverse p
power required
q
to
spin a generator at synchronous speed
Steam turbines
Hydro turbines
Diesel engines
Gas turbines
0.53%
0.22+%
525%
50+%
54
1/29/2013
Directional Power Element
Q
32P1
32P2
P1
P2
Overexcitation Protection
V f NOM
f VNOM
Overexcitation occurs when V/f exceeds
1.05
Causes generator heating
Volts/hertz (24) protection should trip
generator
55
1/29/2013
Core Damaged due to Overexcitation
Source: Maughan, Clyde. V., Maintenance of Turbine Driven Generators, Maughan Engineering Consultants
Core Damaged due to Overexcitation
Source: Maughan, Clyde. V., Maintenance of Turbine Driven Generators, Maughan Engineering Consultants
56
1/29/2013
Overexcitation Protection
Dual-Level, Definite Time Characteristic
Overexcitation Protection
Inverse- and Definite Time Characteristics
57
1/29/2013
Overvoltage Protection
Overvoltage most frequently occurs in
h d l t i generators
hydroelectric
t
Overvoltage protection (59):
Instantaneous element set at 130150
percent of rated voltage
Time-delayed element set at approximately
110 percent of rated voltage
Abnormal Frequency Protection
58
1/29/2013
Possible Damage From
Out-of-Step Generator Operation
Mechanical stress in the machine windings
Damage to shaft resulting from pulsating
torques
High stator core temperatures
Thermal stress in the step-up transformer
Single-Blinder Out-of-Step Scheme
59
1/29/2013
Double-Blinder Out-of-Step Scheme
Generator Inadvertent Energization
Common causes: human errors, control
circuit failures
failures, and breaker flashovers
The generator starts as an induction motor
High currents induced in the rotor cause
rapid heating
High stator current
60
1/29/2013
Inadvertent Energization Protection
Logic
Logic for Combined Breaker-Failure
and Breaker-Flashover Protection
61
1/29/2013
Backup Protection
Directly Connected Generator
Generator With Step-Up Transformer
Voltage-Restrained Overcurrent
Element Pickup Current
62
1/29/2013
Mho Distance Element Characteristic
Synchronism-Check Element
63
1/29/2013
Power System Disturbance Caused
by an Out-of-Synchronism Close
Nominal Current: 10560 A
Voltage: 6.5 kV
Possible Damaging Effects
During Synchronizing
Shaft damage due to torque
Bearing damage
Loosened stator windings
Loosened stator laminations
64
1/29/2013
IEEE Generator Synchronizing
Limits
Breaker closing angle
+/ 10
+/10
Generator-side voltage
relative to system
100% to 105%
Frequency difference
+/0.067 Hz
Source: IEEE Std. C50.12 and C50.13
Issues Affecting Generator
Synchronizing
Voltage ratio differences
Voltage angle differences
Voltage, angle, and slip limits
Synchronism
Check relay
Synchronism
Check relay
65
1/29/2013
Synchronism-Check Logic Overview
66