Chapter 1 - DP Flow

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1.1 Introduction to DP Flow

F
Differential pressure flow measurement (DP Flow) is one of the most common technologies for measuring flow in a closed pipe.
There are many reasons for the wide usage of DP Flow technology.

Its technology is based on well-known laws of physics, particularly around fluid dynamics and mass transport phenomena

Its long history of use has also led to the development of standards for manufacture and use of DP flowmeters

Manufacturers offer a large catalog of both general and application-specific instrumentation and installation choices

DP Flow technologies achieve high accuracy and repeatability

Video 1.1.a - How DP Flow Works

1.2 History of DP Flow

Flow measurement began thousands of years ago as the Egyptians began to make approximate predictions of harvests based on the relative level of spr
engineered aqueducts to provide water in cities for sustenance and the need to monitor steady flow became important. Operators used flow through an o
roughly gauge flow rates. Marks on the walls of the flow stream, strength of the stream through an orifice, etc. gave a rough measurement of the flow rate
1687 enabled physicists and mathematicians to formulate theories around motion and force, which ultimately lead to the development of the ability to qua

The Bernoulli Principle

Daniel Bernoulli was a Swiss mathematician who studied hydrodynamics. His work centered on the conservation of energy and provided the first key brea
technology. He developed the Bernoulli principle which states that the sum of all energy in the flow must remain constant regardless of conditions. Specifi

static energy (pressure), kinetic energy (velocity), and potential energy (elevation) upstream equals the static, kinetic, and potential energy downstream.
Reynolds Number

Osbourne Reynolds was not a student of physics but rather one of mechanics, and is most famous for his study of fluid flow through a pipe, specifically th
laminar flow to turbulent flow. The Reynolds number is a numeric quantification of the internal forces over the viscous forces. In short it describes the flow
key concept for designing flowmeters and is used as a constraint on the range of a flowmeter's applicability.

1.3 Pressure
What is pressure? Pressure is the amount of force applied over a defined area (Equation 1.1).

Pressure increases with increasing force or decreasing area

Pressure decreases with decreasing force or increasing area

Measuring pressure helps prevents over pressuring of equipment that may result in damage

Measuring pressure helps prevent unplanned pressure or process release that may cause injury

Why Measure Pressure?

The most common reasons that the process industry measures pressure are:
Figure 1.3.a - A multivariable flowmeter for more acurate
process measurements.

Safety

Process efficiency

Cost savings

Measurement of other process variables

Safety: Pressure measurement helps prevent overpressurization of pipes, tanks, valv

equipment damage, controls levels and flows, and helps prevent unplanned pressure

Process Efficiency: In most cases, process efficiency is highest when pressures (an
specific values or within a narrow range of values.

Cost Savings: Pressure or vacuum equipment (e.g., pumps and compressors) uses
save money by reducing energy costs.

Measurement of Other Process Variables: Pressure is used to measure numerous processes. Pressure transmitters are
frequently used in a number of applications, including:

Flow rates through a pipe

Level of fluid in a tank

Density of a substance

Liquid interface measurement

1.4 DP Flow 101

Flow theory is the study of fluids in motion. A fluid is defined as any substance that can flow, and thus the term applies to both liquids and gases. Precise
requires in-depth technical understanding, and is extremely important in almost all process industries.
Key Factors of Flow Through Pipes
There are 6 factors that are key to understanding pipe flow:
1.

Physical piping configuration

2.

Fluid velocity

3.

Friction of the fluid along the walls of the pipe

4.

Fluid density

5.

Fluid viscosity

6.

Reynolds number

Piping Configuration: The diameter and cross-sectional area of the pipe enables both the determination of fluid volume for any given length of pipe and
number for a given application. Velocity: Depends on the pressure or vacuum that forces fluid through the pipe.

Friction: Because no pipe is perfectly smooth, fluid in contact with a pipe encounters friction, resulting in a slower flow rate near the walls of the pipe com
cleaner a pipe, the less effect on the flow rate.

Density: Density affects flow rates because the more dense a fluid, the higher the pressure required to obtain a given flow rate. Because liquids are (for a
compressible, different methodologies are required to measure their respective flow rates.

Viscosity: Defined as the molecular friction of a fluid, viscosity affects flow rates because in general, the higher the viscosity more work is needed to achi
viscosity, but not always intuitively. For example, while higher temperatures reduce most fluid viscosities, some fluids actually increase in viscosity above

Reynolds Number: By factoring in the relationships between the various factors in a given system, Reynolds number can be calculated to describe the ty
choosing how to measure the flow within the system.
Video 1.4.a - A visualization of flow through a pipe.

There are three different flow profiles that are defined by different Reynolds number regimes. Laminar flow, characterized by having a Reynolds number b
parallel layers. It usually has low fluid velocities, very little mixing, and sometimes high fluid viscosity. When a fluid's flow profile has a Reynolds number b
transitional. A Reynolds number above 4000 is called turbulent flow. This is characterized by high fluid velocity, low fluid viscosity, and rapid and complete

The best accuracy in DP Flow metering occurs with turbulent flow. This is because in turbulent flow, the point at which the fluid separates from the edge o
consistent. This separation of the fluid creates the low pressure zone on the downstream side of the restriction, thus allowing that restriction to function as
the type of restriction and design of the flowmeter, the minimum pipe Reynolds number at which a specific meter should be operated can be considerably

Flow Continuity
When liquid flows through a pipe of varying diameter, the same volume flows at all cross sectional slices. This means that the velocity of flow must increa
velocity decreases when the diameter increases. Equation 1.2 highlights this relationship.
Volumetric flow equates to the volume of fluid divided by time:

Volume can be broken down to area, A, multiplied by length, s. Volumetric flow can thus be expressed as:

Equation 1.3 can be further simplified, since length, l, divided by time yields velocity, v. Velocity can now be substituted for the term s/t tielding:

Since the volumetric flow rate is the same at all cross-sectional slices:

Substituting Equation 1.4 into Equatation 1.5:

Figure 1.4.a - Graphical representation of the flow law where Q1 = Q2.

The derivation of flow continuity above describes the basic principle of energy conservation. The Bernoulli equation, which will be covered in more detail i
energy conservation appropriate for flowing fluid.
The DP Flowmeter

The primary element creates a pressure drop across the flowmeter by introducing a restriction in the pipe. This pressure drop is measured by the second
tertiary element consists of everything else within
the system needed to make it work, including impulse piping and connectors that route the upstream and do

By creating an engineered restriction in a pipe, Bernoulli's equation can be used to calculate flow rate becau
restriction is proportional to the flow rate.
There are some important cautions around DP Flow metering, including:
1.

Ensuring that impulse lines do not clog with particles or sludge

2.

Orienting impulse lines correctly (they have to be sloped to prevent gas accumulation in liquid app
applications)

3.

Ensuring that periodic calibration does not degrade accuracy (avoided by using highly accurate ca

Primary Element Types

There are many kinds of primary elements including those shown in Figure 1.4.c. Examples include:

Single hole and conditioning orifice plates

Single and multiple-port pitot tubes

Venturi tubes

Flow nozzles

Cones

Segmental wedges

Transmitter Options
There are two main types of pressure transmitters used to calculate flow using diff
differential pressure type, which only measures differential pressure, with no ancill
transmitter. A multivariable transmitter is a differential pressure transmitter that is c
process variables, including differential

pressure, static pressure, and temperature. When used as a mass flow transmitter, these independent values can be used to compensate for changes in
Video 1.4.b - How Multivariable Transmitters Work

1.5 DP Flow Measurement Applications

Product Consistency: Batch-based products depend on accurate proportions of ingredients, and DP Flow meters help ensure the accurate delivery of liq

Production Efficiency: Metering and measurement of flow are part of a broad range of process control variables related to efficiency, from batch control,

Process Variable Control: Processes often include multiple variable inputs. Control over these variables, including flow rates, is key to quality production
Safety: DP Flow helps prevent a broad range of threats to safety including overfilling, reactor control, and others.

Internal Billing & Resource Allocation: Tighter control over inventories and process rates contributes directly to profitability. For many sophisticated pro
impacts the bottom line.
Custody Transfer: Flow metering is the cash register for products sold by volume or weight. An accurate measurement on the dispensing side accounts
over-charging.

1.6 Flowmeter Installations

Traditional Installation
The Traditional Installation Method calls for three separate component categories shown in Figure 1.6.a.

1.

Primary element (differential pressure producer)

2.

Secondary element (transmitter)

3.

Tertiary elements (impulse lines, connecting hardware, tubing, fittings, valves, etc.)

The traditional form enables component-by-component engineering to meet a wide variety of applica
transfer standards.

Traditional installation has inherent limitations and problems. These include multiple potential leak po
manifolding; and accuracy problems traceable to long impulse lines. In addition, installation is compl
primary element used) and careful configuration of components. Much work has been done over the
extend the usefulness and value of DP Flow installations.

Integrated Installation

The integrated flowmeter integrates the primary element and the transmitter into a single flowmeter assembly. It was in large part developed to minimize t
traditional flowmeter. As a result, its installation requires fewer components and less labor than traditional flowmeter installations.
The integrated flowmeter works much the same way as that of the traditional flowmeter. It uses the same equations, works largely with the same primary
transmitters (both differential pressure and multivariable).
Benefits of the Integrated Flowmeter:

Eliminates the need for fittings, tubing, valves, adapters, manifolds, and mounting brackets

Fewer potential leak points (factory leak checked)

Fewer flow measurement error sources

Simplified ordering and installation

Decreased susceptibility to freezing and plugging

More compact footprint

Rosemount integrated flowmeters combine industry leading transmitters with innovative primary element technologies and connection systems. There are
engineering, procurement, and installation.
Figure 1.6.b - The traditional DP Flow structure vs. the integrated multivariable DP Flow structure.

1.7 Alternate Flow Technologies

Flow measurement can be performed with a broad range of technologies other than pressure-based. These include open channel, mechanical, ultrasonic
and vortex types.

Electromagnetic flowmeters, which require an electrically-conductive fluid and a means for inducing magnetic energy to the flow, use electrodes to sense

DP Flow remains the most commonly used form of flow measurement in the industry.
Coriolis flowmeters, as the name implies, use the Coriolis effect, which induces distortion in a vibrating tube.
Optical flowmeters use photodetectors to gauge the movement of particles in an illuminated fluid stream.

Vortex flowmeters use electrical pulse generators-commonly a piezoelectric crystal-to measure flow disturbances (vortices) around a calibrated obstructio

Each of the various flow measurement technologies in existence today has its ideal range of applications. However, thanks to its long history, its ease of u
remains the most-commonly used form of flow measurement in industry.