Chapter 4 - Sidewalk Design Guidelines and Existing

Practices
Sidewalks form the backbone of the pedestrian transportation network. According to the Institute of
Transportation Engineers, Technical Council Committee 5A-5 (1998), sidewalks "reduce the incidence of
pedestrian collisions, injuries, and deaths in residential areas and along two-lane roadways." Without
sidewalks, public rights-of-way are inaccessible to all pedestrians, including people with disabilities. When
sidewalks are not available, pedestrians are forced to share the street with motorists, access to public
transportation is restricted, and children might not have safe play areas. Because Federal regulations do
not require agencies to build sidewalks, the decision is left to States and local agencies. Some agencies
prioritize sidewalk installation, while others do not.

Accessible pedestrian facilities should be considered part of every new public right-of-way project where
pedestrians are permitted. Sidewalk installation and the linking of pedestrian routes to transportation
stops and major corridors should always be a priority. The decision to install sidewalks should not be
optional. "Sidewalks should be built and maintained in all urban areas, along non-Interstate public
highway rights-of-way, in commercial areas where the public is invited, and between all commercial
transportation stops and public areas" (Institute of Transportation Engineers, Technical Council
Committee 5A-5, 1998). This chapter examines the elements and characteristics of sidewalks that have
the greatest impact on access. These characteristics include grade, cross-slope, and the design of
specific elements such as curb ramps, driveway crossings, and intersections.

4.1 Location Research

The researchers visited a variety of sidewalk locations to determine what access provisions were being
made for pedestrians. Eighteen jurisdictions across the United States were selected; some were chosen
for their pedestrian-friendly reputations, while others were visited because the researchers had other
business in the area. Measurements were taken during these visits to determine if the access needs of
people with disabilities were being addressed and where improvements needed to be made.

During the site visits, local transportation officials responsible for sidewalk design and construction were
interviewed about the ways their agencies were making sidewalks more accessible. Officials contacted
included engineers responsible for implementing access improvements, ADA compliance officers,
pedestrian/bicycle coordinators, and planners overseeing the construction of access features for new
construction and renovations.

The interviews indicated that many sidewalk professionals have a desire to make sidewalks accessible.
Designers and builders are beginning to realize that the standard pedestrian is a myth and that, in reality,
sidewalk users are very diverse. However, there remains a need to provide information to designers and
builders on ways to develop accessible facilities within the constraints of existing facilities, as well as in
new construction.

During the visits, it became clear that techniques needed to be developed to accurately measure sidewalk
elements such as curb ramps, driveway crossings, and medians. Techniques to quickly and accurately
assess sidewalk environments were adapted from the Universal Trail Assessment Process (UTAP),
originally developed to assess access conditions on recreational trails. The tools used to measure
sidewalks were identical to those used in the UTAP, with the addition of a profile gauge to record small
changes in level and raised tactile surfaces (see Section 5.1 for more information about the UTAP). The
terminology and measurement process was standardized to ensure consistency among personnel.

General information about each sidewalk feature was recorded, including type, dimensions, and location
with respect to other sidewalk elements. A data sheet was developed for quick recording of general
access information. More detailed measurements of curb ramps, driveway crossings, and medians were
recorded on a separate form. Up to 10 grade segments, 8 lengths, and 6 transition heights were recorded
for these elements for full characterization of the dimensions and grades of each ramp, street, and gutter.

4.2 Design Guideline Comparisons

In addition to visiting a variety of sidewalk locations, the researchers identified existing guidelines that
could be applied to public rights-of-way. The guidelines were collected from Federal, State, and city
agencies, as well as private research and advocacy organizations. Guidelines for sidewalks were
compiled in Tables 4-2.1 to 4-2.4. Guidelines for curb ramps were compiled in Tables 4-3.1 to 4-3.4. Both
sets of tables are located at the end of this chapter.

The degree of accessibility provided by each guideline depends on the focus of the authorizing agency or
organization. For example, the design guidelines produced by the American Association of State Highway
and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) focus primarily on vehicle use, whereas ADAAG emphasizes
accessible design for pedestrians. The AASHTO guidelines for public rights-of-way are titled A Policy on
Geometric Design of Highways and Streets; however, the document is commonly referred to as the
AASHTO Green Book. This terminology will be used throughout this report to avoid confusion with the
AASHTO guidelines for bicycle and shared-use paths.

The Federal accessibility guidelines (the ADA Standards for Accessible Design and UFAS) were originally
developed for accessible routes in buildings and on building sites. Many of the requirements for
accessible routes can be extrapolated to public rights-of-way. In 1994, the U.S. Access Board developed
draft accessibility guidelines, proposed by ADAAG (1994), that specifically applied to public rights-of-way.
Even though proposed Section 14 (1994) is now reserved, some State DOTs have adopted it as their
accessibility standard for public rights-of-way. Some State and local transportation agencies have also
developed their own standards for sidewalk design because traditional guidelines, such as the AASHTO
Green Book, do not include comprehensive sidewalk recommendations. Other organizations, such as the
Institute of Transportation Engineers and the Federal Highway Administration, have also developed
sidewalk and curb ramp design recommendations.

4.3 Access Characteristics

The design of a sidewalk can be described by a variety of characteristics. This report focuses on sidewalk
characteristics that have the greatest impact on accessibility, such as grade and surface type. Other
characteristics such as location, type of street, and climate also affect the pedestrian friendliness of a
sidewalk but do not directly impact access. Access characteristics directly affect usability of a sidewalk.
The amount of attention paid to these details will determine whether a facility is accessible or not. Even
mildly difficult features in combination can add up to an inaccessible pathway.

4.3.1 Grade

Grade (slope) is defined as the slope parallel to the direction of travel and is calculated by dividing the
vertical change in elevation by the horizontal distance covered. For example, a path that gains 2 m in
elevation over 50 m of horizontal distance has a grade of 4 percent. Although some guidelines use the
term "slope" instead of "grade," the term "grade" is used in this report to avoid confusion with cross-slope.

Running grade is defined as the average grade along a contiguous grade. Maximum grade is defined as a
limited section of path that exceeds the typical running grade. In the pedestrian environment, maximum
grade should be measured over 0.610 m (24 in) intervals (the approximate length of a wheelchair
wheelbase, or a single walking pace). When measuring sidewalk grade, both running grade and
maximum grade should be determined. Measuring running grade only does not give an accurate
understanding of the sidewalk environment because small steep sections may not be detected. Figure 4-1
provides an example of a typical grade that is fairly negotiable, with a maximum grade that could be very
difficult for some users to traverse. In the illustration, the running grade between Points A and D is 5
percent, but the grade between Points B and C is 14 percent. A person who could negotiate a 5 percent
grade might not be able to negotiate a 14 percent grade, even for short distances.

Figure 4-1: Maximum grades can make a sidewalk difficult to traverse, even if the overall running grade is
moderate.

The rate of change of grade is defined as the change in grade over a given distance. The rate of grade
change is determined by measuring the grade and the distance over which it occurs for each segment of
the overall distance. For the purposes of this report, rate of change of grade is measured over 0.610 m (2
ft) intervals, which represent the approximate length of a single walking pace and a wheelchair wheelbase
(Figure 4-2). In the sidewalk environment, rate of change of grade should not exceed 13 percent. An
example of a 13 percent change in grade occurs at a curb ramp if the slope of the gutter is 5 percent and
the slope of the curb ramp is 8 percent (Figure 4-2).

Figure 4-2: The gutter slopes counter to the slope of the curb ramp to promote drainage.

If the rate of change of grade exceeds 13 percent over a 0.610 m (2 ft) interval, the ground clearance of
the footrests and or antitip wheels might be compromised. Antitip wheels are placed on the back of some
wheelchairs to improve stability and prevent tipping. Even wheelchair users traveling slowly can get stuck
if the footrest or antitip wheels get caught.

If the rate of change of grade exceeds 13 percent, the dynamic stability of the sidewalk user can also be
significantly compromised, depending on the speed at which the wheelchair user goes through the curb
ramp. Dynamic stability is compromised because the negative slope of the gutter causes the wheelchair
to rotate forward. However, upon reaching the bottom of the transition, the wheelchair begins to pitch
back rapidly as the wheelchair travels up onto the positive slope in front of the chair (Figure 4-3). Rapid
changes in grade can also cause a wheelchair user traveling with speed to flip over backward, as
illustrated in Figure 4-4. Any amount of height transition between the curb ramp and the gutter can
intensify problems for wheelchair users.
Figure 4-3: Excessive slope differences between gutter and ramp can cause a wheelchair to tip forward.

Figure 4-4: Excessive slope differences between a gutter and a ramp can cause wheelchairs to flip over
backward.

Counter slope is defined as a grade that is opposite to the general running grade of a path. For example,
at a curb ramp, the slope of the gutter is generally counter to the slope of the ramp (Figure 4-2).
According to ADAAG, the counter slope to a curb ramp should not exceed 5 percent (ADAAG, U.S.
Access Board, 1991). If the counter slope of a curb ramp exceeds 5 percent, the rate of change of grade
is likely to exceed 13 percent, depending upon the grade of the ramp.

The guidelines and recommendations that were reviewed for running grade and maximum grade are
included in Tables 4-2.1 through 4-2.4, located at the end of this chapter. ADAAG and UFAS specify that
the maximum grade of an accessible route on a building site be no more than 8.33 percent with a
maximum rise of 0.760 m (30 in). Grades greater than 5 percent require handrails and level landings at
least 1.525 m (60 in) wide. If the ramp turns, the landing dimensions should be 1.525 m x 1.525 m (60 in x
60 in). A ramp with level landings at both ends is illustrated in Figure 4-5.The distance between level
landings is dependent on the grade of the ramp. For example, if the ramp grade is 8.33 percent, a level
landing is required at least every 9.1 m (30 ft). However, if the grade of the ramp is 6.5 percent, a level
landing is required only every 12 m (40 ft). (ADAAG, U.S. Access Board, 1991; UFAS, U.S. DoD et al.,
1984). Level landings provided at regular intervals allow wheelchair users and others a place to rest, turn
around, and gain relief from prevailing grade demands. Level landings at storefronts and driveway
crossings can also provide valuable resting spots for sidewalk users.
Figure 4-5: Ramps must have level landings (based on ADAAG Figure 16, U.S. Access Board, 1991).

The AASHTO Green Book recommends that the running grade of sidewalks be consistent with the
running grade of adjacent roadways. Section 14.2.1 (2a) in ADAAG proposed Section 14 (1994), now
reserved, permits the running grade of the sidewalk to be consistent with the grade of adjacent roadways
but recommends that the minimum feasible slope be used (U.S. Access Board, 1994b). State guidelines
examined concur with the Federal accessibility standards, proposed Section 14 (1994), or the AASHTO
Green Book.

4.3.2 Cross-Slope

Cross-slope is defined as the slope measured perpendicular to the direction of travel. Unlike grade, cross-
slope can be measured only at specific points. Steep cross-slopes can make it difficult for wheelchair or
crutch users to maintain lateral balance and can cause wheelchairs to veer downhill or into the street.
Cross-slope is determined by taking measurements at intervals throughout a section of sidewalk and then
averaging the values.

Running cross-slope is defined as the average cross-slope of a contiguous section of sidewalk. Often
within the typical running cross-slope, there are inaccessible maximum cross-slopes that exceed the
running cross-slope. The distance over which a maximum cross-slope occurs significantly influences how
difficult a section of sidewalk is to negotiate.

Rate of change of cross-slope is defined as the change in cross-slope over a given distance. Rate of
change of cross-slope can be measured by placing a digital level a specified distance before and after a
maximum cross-slope. The specified distance should be about 0.610 m (2 ft) to represent the
approximate stride of a pedestrian or the wheelbase of a wheelchair.

A cross-slope that changes so rapidly that there is no planar surface within 0.610 m (2 ft) could create a
safety hazard. As the wheelchair moves over a surface that is severely warped, it will first balance on the
two rear wheels and one front caster. As the wheelchair moves forward, it then tips onto both front casters
and one rear wheel. This transition could cause the wheelchair user to lose control and tip over.

Proposed Section 14 (1994) specifies that sidewalks should lie in a continuous plane with a minimum of
surface warping. Nonplanar surfaces are frequently found at driveway crossing flares and curb ramps
without landings. Rapidly changing cross-slopes can cause one wheel of a wheelchair or one leg of a
walker to lose contact with the ground (Figure 4-6) and also can cause walking pedestrians to stumble or
fall.

Figure 4-6: When cross-slopes change rapidly over a short distance, wheelchair use becomes extremely
unstable.
Most sidewalks are built with some degree of cross-slope, to allow water to drain into the street and to
prevent water from collecting on the path. Water puddles pose a slipping hazard to sidewalk users and
are even more difficult to negotiate when frozen into ice sheets in colder climates.

The guidelines and recommendations that were reviewed for running cross-slope are included in Tables
4-2.1 through 4-2.4 at the end of this chapter. ADAAG and the State pedestrian facility guidelines
reviewed for this report do not permit cross-slopes to exceed 2 percent. The AASHTO Green Book
requires the cross-slope of roads to be at least 1.5 percent to permit adequate drainage. The AASHTO
Green Book does not provide cross-slope specifications for sidewalks.No guidelines or recommendations
for maximum cross-slopes on sidewalks were identified.

4.3.3 Width

The widths of sidewalks not only affect pedestrian usability but also determine the types of access and
other pedestrian elements that can be installed. For example, a 1.525-m (60-in) sidewalk is probably wide
enough to accommodate pedestrian traffic in a residential area,but a much wider sidewalk would be
necessary to include amenities such as street furniture or newspaper stands.Design width is defined as
the width specification the sidewalk was intended to meet; it extends from the curb or planting strip to any
buildings or landscaping that form the opposite borders of the sidewalk.Minimum clearance width is
defined as the narrowest point on a sidewalk. An inaccessible minimum clearance width is created when
obstacles such as utility poles protrude into the sidewalk and reduce the design width.A reduction in the
design width could also create a minimum clearance width.

Although most guidelines require sidewalk design widths to be at least 1.525 m (60 in) wide, larger design
widths can accommodate more pedestrians and improve ease of access. The AASHTO Green Book, the
Oregon Department of Transportation guidebook, and other guidelines recommend wider design widths in
areas with high volumes of pedestrians. The sidewalk width often depends on the type of street. In
general,residential streets have narrower sidewalks than commercial streets.

The guidelines and recommendations that were reviewed for minimum clearance width are included in
Tables 4-2.1 through 4-2.4 at the end of this chapter. Most of the guidelines reviewed concur with
ADAAG, which specifies that the minimum passage width for wheelchairs should be 0.815 m (32 in) at a
point and 0.915 m (36 in) continuously (ADAAG, U.S. Access Board, 1991). Additional width is necessary
for turning and maneuvering.
The width of the sidewalk is also affected by pedestrian travel tendencies.Pedestrians tend to travel in the
center of sidewalks to separate themselves from the rush of traffic and avoid street furniture, vertical
obstructions, and other pedestrians entering and exiting buildings. Pedestrians avoid the edge of the
sidewalk close to the street because it often contains utility poles, bus shelters,parking meters, sign poles,
and other street furniture. Pedestrians also avoid traveling in the 0.610 m (24 in) of the sidewalk close to
buildings to avoid retaining walls, street furniture, and fences (OR DOT, 1995). The sidewalk area that
pedestrians tend to avoid is referred to as the shy distance. Taking into account the shy distance, only the
center 1.830 m (6 ft) of a 3.050-m (10-ft) sidewalk is used by pedestrians for travel, as shown in Figure 4-
7. Thus,the effective width of a sidewalk, not the design width, constitutes the sidewalk area needed to
accommodate anticipated levels of pedestrian traffic.

Figure 4-7: Most pedestrians prefer to travel in the center of the sidewalk.

When right-of-way is acquired for sidewalk construction, it is important that adequate width be included to
make the facility accessible. If sidewalks are not currently included, the agency responsible for sidewalk
construction might consider purchasing additional right-of-way to anticipate future construction. When
improving existing facilities, designers should consider purchasing additional right-of-way or narrowing the
vehicle portion of the roadway.

4.3.4 Passing Space and Passing Space Interval

Passing space is defined as a section of path wide enough to allow two wheelchair users to pass one
another or travel abreast (Figure 4-8). The passing space provided should also be designed to allow one
wheelchair user to turn in a complete circle (Figure 4-9).

Figure 4-8: Passing spaces should be included at intervals on narrow sidewalks to allow wheelchair users
to pass one another.
Figure 4-9: Wheelchair users require 1.525 m x 1.525 m (60 in x 60 in) to maneuver in a complete circle.

Passing space interval is defined as the distance between passing spaces. Passing spaces should be
provided when the sidewalk width is narrow for a prolonged extent because of a narrow design width or
continuous obstacles.

Many agencies and private organizations do not provide guidelines for passing space or passing space
intervals. Those that do provide guidelines concur with ADAAG Section 4.3.4, which specifies that
accessible routes with less than 1.525 m (60 in) of clear width must provide passing spaces at least 1.525
m (60 in) wide at reasonable intervals not exceeding 61 m (200 ft). If turning or maneuvering is
necessary, a turning space of 1.525 m x 1.525 m (60 in x 60 in) should be provided (ADAAG, U.S. Access
Board, 1991).

4.3.5 Vertical Clearance

Vertical clearance is defined as the minimum unobstructed vertical passage space required along a
sidewalk. Vertical clearance is often limited by obstacles such as building overhangs, tree branches,signs,
and awnings.
The guidelines and recommendations that were reviewed for minimum allowable vertical clearance are
included in Tables 4-2.1 through 4-2.4 at the end of this chapter. The majority of guidelines require a
minimum of 2.030 m (80 in) of unobstructed vertical passage space.However, Oregon and Pennsylvania
require 2.1 and 2.4 m (83 and 94 in) of vertical passage space, respectively (OR DOT, 1995; PA DOT,
1996).ADAAG states that circulation spaces, such as corridors, should have at least 2.030 m (80 in) of
head room. ADAAG further specifies that if the vertical clearance of an area next to a circulation route is
less than 2.030 m (80 in), elements that project into the circulation space must be protected by a barrier
to warn people who are visually disabled or blind (ADAAG, U.S. Access Board, 1991).

4.3.6 Changes in Level

Changes in level are defined as vertical height transitions between adjacent surfaces or along the surface
of a path.In the sidewalk environment, curbs without curb ramps, cracks (Figure 4-10),and dislocations in
the surface material are common examples of changes in level. Changes in level also can result at
expansion joints between elements such as curb ramps and gutters.

Figure 4-10: Changes in level are often caused by tree roots that break through the sidewalk surface.

Changes in level can cause ambulatory pedestrians to trip or catch the casters of a manual wheelchair,
causing the chair to come to an abrupt stop. People who are blind or who have low vision might not
anticipate changes in level such as a buckling brick sidewalk.

The following conditions were observed to cause changes in level:

 Buckled bricks
 Cracks
 Curbs without ramps
 Drainage grates
 Grooves in concrete
 Heaving and settlement due to frost
 Lips at curb ramp frames
 Railroad tracks
 Roots
 Small steps
 Tree grates
 Uneven transitions between streets,gutters, and ramps
The guidelines and recommendations that were reviewed for changes in level are included in Tables 4-
2.1 through 4-2.4 at the end of this chapter. The Federal accessibility standards permit changes in level
less than 6 mm (0.25 in) high to be vertical but require changes in level between 6 mm and 13 mm (0.25
in and 0.50 in) to have a maximum bevel of 50 percent, as shown in Figure 4-11. A ramp is required for
changes in level that exceed 13 mm (0.50 in) (US DOJ, 1991; UFAS,U.S. DoD et al., 1984).

Figure 4-11: Vertical and beveled changes in level [ADAAG, Figure 7 (c, d), U.S. Access Board, 1991].

4.3.7 Grates and Gaps

A grate is a framework of latticed or parallel bars that prevents large objects from falling through a
drainage inlet but permits water and some debris to fall through the slots (Figure 4-12).A gap is defined as
a single channel embedded in the travel surface of a path.Gaps are often found at intersections where
railroad tracks are embedded into the road surface.

Figure 4-12: Wheelchair casters and cane and crutch tips can easily get caught in wide grates.

Wheelchair casters and crutch tips can get caught in poorly aligned grate and gap openings. ADAAG
specifies that grates located in walking surfaces should have spaces no greater than 13 mm (0.5 in) wide
in one direction. It also states that gratings with elongated openings should be oriented so that the long
dimension is perpendicular to the dominant direction of travel (ADAAG, U.S. Access Board,1991).
Although ADAAG does not directly address gaps, the similarity of a gap to a single grate slot suggests
that ADAAG's grate specifications also apply to gaps.

4.3.8 Obstacles and Protruding Objects

Obstacles in the pedestrian environment are defined as objects that limit the vertical passage space,
protrude into the circulation route, or reduce the clearance width of the sidewalk. Obstacles with large
overhangs that protrude into the path of travel can be hazardous for people with visual impairments if they
are difficult to detect. The full width of the circulation path should be free of protruding objects.Obstacles
that reduce the minimum clearance width, such as decorative planters on a narrow sidewalk, can create
significant barriers for wheelchair or walker users.

Most guidelines for accessibility concur with the ADAAG specifications for protruding objects. ADAAG
states that objects projecting from walls that have leading edges between 0.685 m and 2.030 m (27 in
and 80 in) should not protrude more than 100 mm (4 in) into walks and passageways. Freestanding
objects mounted on posts or pylons may overhang a maximum of 0.305 m (12 in) from 0.685 m to 2.030
m (27 in to 80 in) above the ground (ADAAG, U.S. Access Board, 1991), as shown in Figure 4-13.

During the sidewalk assessments,potential obstacles and protruding objects were measured as they
occurred along the sidewalk. Characteristics of obstacles measured in the sidewalk assessment include
height, amount of overhang over the supporting structure (if any), and minimum clearance width around
the obstacle.

The following objects can make a sidewalk difficult for some users to traverse if they protrude into the
pathway or reduce the vertical or horizontal clear space:

 Awnings
 Benches
 Bike racks
 Bollards
 Cafe tables and chairs
 Drinking fountains
 Fire hydrants
 Folding business signs
 Grates
 Guy wires
 Landscaping
 Mailboxes (public and private)
 Newspaper vending machines
 Parking meters
 Planters
 Public telephones (mounted)
 Puddles
 Signal control boxes
 Sign poles
 Snow
 Street vendors' carts
 Street light poles
 Street sculptures
 Telephone booths
 Telephone/utility poles and their stabilizing wires
 Traffic sign poles
 Transit shelters
 Trash bags and cans
 Tree, bush, and shrub branches
 Utility boxes

4.3.9 Surface
Surface is defined as the material on which a person walks or wheels in the pedestrian environment. The
type of surface often determines how difficult an area is to negotiate. For example,wood floors can be
traversed without much difficulty by most people, while a gravel surface can be impossible for some
people, especially wheelchair users,to cross. Surfaces in sidewalk environments are generally concrete or
asphalt but commonly include tile, stone, and brick.

Most guidelines for accessibility adhere to ADAAG, which defines accessible surfaces as firm, stable, and
slip-resistant.Firm and stable surfaces resist deformation,especially by indentation or the movement of
objects. For example, a firm and stable surface, such as concrete, resists indentation from the forces
applied by a walking person's feet and reduces the rolling resistance experienced by a wheelchair (U.S.
Access Board, 1994a). When a pedestrian or wheelchair user crosses a surface that is not firm or stable,
energy that would otherwise cause forward motion deforms or displaces the surface instead.

Figure 4-13: Obstacles mounted on posts should not protrude more than 0.305 m (12 in) into a circulation
corridor [ADAAG, Figure 8(d), U.S. Access Board, 1991].

A slip-resistant surface provides enough frictional counterforce to the forces exerted in ambulation to
permit effective travel (ibid.). For example, a slip-resistant surface prevents a person's shoes, crutch tips,
or tires from sliding across the surface while bearing weight.A broom finish is used on many concrete
sidewalks to provide sufficient slip resistance for pedestrians. The AASHTO Green Book requires
sidewalks to have all-weather surfacing. The surface texture of curb ramps should be coarse enough to
provide slip resistance when wet.

Although asphalt and concrete are the most common surfaces for sidewalks,many sidewalks are
designed using brick or cobblestones. Although these surfaces are decorative, they increase the amount
of work required for mobility. In addition,brick and cobblestone have inherent changes in level that are
often tripping hazards. Alternatives to brick sidewalks include colored concrete stamped to look like brick,
and asphalt or concrete paths with brick trim. Both alternatives preserve the decorative quality of brick but
are easier for people with disabilities to negotiate.
4.4 Sidewalk Elements
4.4.1 Curb Ramps

Curb ramps provide critical access between the sidewalk and the street for people with mobility
impairments.Without curb ramps, people who use wheelchairs cannot access the sidewalk.Curb ramps
are most commonly found at intersections but may also be used at midblock crossings and medians.The
implementing regulations for Title II of the ADA require curb ramps to be included in all new construction
of sidewalks. The regulations also require curb ramps to be installed where existing pedestrian walkways
cross a curb or other barrier (US DOJ, 1994b). Although no city surveyed has installed curb ramps in all
existing pedestrian walkways, some cities have initiated aggressive plans calling for up to 500 curb ramp
installations per year.

4.4.1.1 Curb ramp components

Although there are a variety of curb ramp designs,each type of curb ramp comprises some or all of the
following elements,which are illustrated in Figure 4-14:

Figure 4-14: Components of a curb ramp.

 Landing — level area of sidewalk at the top of a curb ramp facing the ramp path.
 Approach — section of the accessible route flanking the landing of a curb ramp. The approach
may be slightly graded if the landing level is below the elevation of the adjoining sidewalk.
 Flare — sloped transition between the curb ramp and the sidewalk. The path along the flare has a
significant cross-slope and is not considered an accessible path of travel. When the sidewalk is
set back from the street, returned curbs often replace flares (see Figure 4-20,p. 44).
 Ramp — sloped transition between the street and the sidewalk where the grade is constant and
the cross-slope is at a minimum (preferably less than 2 percent).
 Gutter — trough or dip used for drainage purposes that runs along the edge of the street and the
curb or curb ramp.

4.4.1.2 Curb ramp specifications

Curb ramps should be designed to minimize the grade, cross-slope, and changes in level experienced by
users.Most agencies use standard drawings to design curb ramps. Some of these guidelines are
compiled in Tables 4-3.1 to 4-3.4 at the end of this chapter.The majority of the guidelines reviewed agree
with ADAAG Section 4.7 specifications for curb ramps.
4.4.1.2.1 Ramps

According to ADAAG, the slope of a curb ramp should not exceed 8.33 percent,and the cross-slope
should not exceed 2 percent. ADAAG also states that the least severe slope should be used in every
situation. In retrofitting situations in which space prohibits the installation of an 8.33 percent ramp,
ADAAG allows a slope between 8.33 percent and 10 percent for a maximum rise of 150 mm (6 in) or a
slope between 10 percent and 12.5 percent for a maximum rise of 75 mm (3 in) (ADAAG,U.S. Access
Board, 1991), as demonstrated in Figure 4-15.

Figure 4-15: Alternative slope profiles for alterations when an 8.33 percent slope is not achievable.

Curb ramp widths should depend on the volume of pedestrian traffic at the specified intersection.
Although ramp widths are permitted to vary, they must always be wide enough for comfortable use by
wheelchair users. For this reason, ADAAG specifies that curb ramps should be at least 0.915 m (36 in)
wide, not including the width of the flared sides (ADAAG, U.S. Access Board, 1991). The AASHTO Green
Book states that curb ramps, a minimum of 1.0 m (39 in) wide or of the same width as the approach
sidewalk, should be provided at crosswalks (AASHTO, 1995).

Curb ramps that are too wide and curb ramps with gradual slopes are difficult for pedestrians with visual
impairments to detect. Adding a 0.610 m (2 ft) detectable warning at the bottom of these types of ramps
will improve detectability. In many cities, grooves, which are intended to work as detectable warnings, are
placed along the top of the ramp and/or on the ramp surface.However, grooves are difficult for people
with visual impairments to detect.In addition, detectable warnings are most effective if placed at the
location of the hazard. For sidewalks, the hazard occurs at the transition point between the sidewalk and
the street. Section 4.4.2 contains additional information for pedestrians with visual impairments.

4.4.1.2.2 Gutters

The slopes of adjacent gutters and streets significantly affect the overall accessibility of curb ramps.
When the rate of change of grade between the gutter and the ramp exceeds 13 percent over a 0.610-m
(2-ft) interval, wheelchair users can lose their balance. Any amount of height transition between the curb
ramp and the gutter can compound the difficulties caused by rapidly changing grades. According to
ADAAG, the slope of the road or gutter surface immediately adjacent to the curb ramp should not exceed
5 percent, and the transition between the ramp and the gutter should be smooth (ADAAG, U.S. Access
Board, 1991). Section 4.3.1 contains additional information on rate of change of grade.
4.4.1.2.3 Landings

Curb ramp landings allow people with mobility impairments to move completely off the curb ramp and
onto the sidewalk,as shown in Figure 4-16. Curb ramps without landings force wheelchair users entering
the ramp from the street, as well as people turning the corner, to travel on the ramp flares (Figures 4-17
and 4-18).According to ADAAG, the landing should be a level surface at least 0.915 m (36 in) wide to
prevent pedestrians from having to cross the curb ramp flare. ADAAG Section 14 (1994) recommends a
1.220-m (48-in) landing for perpendicular curb ramps and a 1.525-m (60-in) landing for parallel curb
ramps (U.S. Access Board,1994b).

Figure 4-16: This wheelchair user is maneuvering successfully a curb ramp because a level landing is
provided.

Figure 4-17: This wheelchair user will have difficulty entering the sidewalk because the curb ramp lacks a
landing.

Figure 4-18: This wheelchair user will have difficulty traveling around the corner because the curb ramp
lacks a landing.
4.4.1.2.4 Flares

The flared sides of curb ramps provide a graded transition between the ramp and the surrounding
sidewalk (Figure 4-19).Flares are not considered an accessible path of travel because they are generally
steeper than the ramp and often feature significant cross-slopes with excessive rate of change of cross-
slope. According to ADAAG, if the landing width is less than 1.220 m (48 in),then the slope of the flares at
the curb face should not exceed 8.33 percent. If the landing width is greater than 1.220 m (48 in), a 10
percent slope is acceptable (ADAAG, U.S. Access Board, 1991). If the curb ramp is located where a
pedestrian might normally walk,flares are useful indicators to people with visual disabilities. Flares may be
replaced with returned curbs if the curb ramp is located where a pedestrian does not have to walk across
the ramp or if the sides are protected by guardrails or handrails (Figure 4-20).

Figure 4-19: Flares provide a sloped transition between the ramp and the surrounding sidewalk and are
designed to prevent ambulatory pedestrians from tripping.

Figure 4-20: Returned curbs may be used when the curb ramp is located outside the pedestrian walkway,
such as in a planting strip.
4.4.1.3 Curb ramp types

Curb ramps can be configured in a variety of patterns, depending on the location, type of street, and
existing design constraints. Curb ramps are often categorized by their position relative to the curb line.
The three most common and basic configurations are termed perpendicular, parallel, and diagonal.

4.4.1.3.1 Perpendicular curb ramps

The path of travel along a perpendicular curb ramp is oriented at a 90-degree angle to the curb face.
Perpendicular curb ramps are difficult for wheelchair users to negotiate if they do not have a level landing
(Figure 4-21). When the sidewalk is very narrow, it can be costly to purchase additional right-of-way to
accommodate a landing for perpendicular curb ramps. An alternative to purchasing more land is to extend
the corner into the parking lane with a curb extension (also known as a bulbout). In addition to providing
space for a level landing,curb extensions calm traffic, reduce the crossing distance, and provide a larger
refuge for pedestrians to congregate while waiting to cross the street (reference Section 4.4.9 for
additional information on curb extensions). An additional option for providing landings is to increase the
overall width of the sidewalk by adding right-of-way from the roadway.Perpendicular curb ramps are often
installed in pairs at a corner (Figure 4-22).For new construction, Section 14 (1994) proposed that two
perpendicular curb ramps with level landings should be provided at street crossings. This
recommendation was included because two accessible perpendicular curb ramps are generally safer and
more usable for pedestrians than a single curb ramp.

Figure 4-21: Without level landings, perpendicular curb ramps are problematic for wheelchair users and
others to travel across.
4.4.1.3.2 Diagonal curb ramps

Diagonal curb ramps are single curb ramps installed at the apex of a corner (Figure 4-23). Diagonal curb
ramps force pedestrians descending the ramp to proceed into the intersection before turning to the left or
right to cross the street. This puts them in danger of being hit by turning cars. A marked clear space of
1.220 m (48 in) at the base of diagonal curb ramps is necessary to allow ramp users in wheelchairs
enough room to maneuver into the crosswalk (Figure 4-23) (ADAAG, U.S. Access Board, 1991).A
designer's ability to create a clear space at a diagonal curb ramp might depend on the turning radius of
the corner. For example, a tight turning radius requires the crosswalk line to extend too far into the
intersection and exposes pedestrians to being hit by oncoming traffic. In many situations, diagonal curb
ramps are less costly to install than two perpendicular curb ramps. Although diagonal curb ramps might
save money, they create potential safety and mobility problems for pedestrians,including reduced
maneuverability and increased interaction with turning vehicles,particularly in areas with high traffic
volumes. Diagonal curb ramps are not

Figure 4-22: Two perpendicular curb ramps with level landings maximize access for pedestrians at
intersections.
Figure 4-23: If diagonal curb ramps are installed, a 1.220-m (48-in) clear space should be provided to
allow wheelchair users enough room to maneuver into the crosswalk.

4.4.1.3.3 Parallel curb ramps

The path of travel along a parallel curb ramp is a continuation of the sidewalk, as shown in Figure 4-24.
Parallel curb ramps provide an accessible transition to the street on narrow sidewalks. However, if the
landing on parallel curb ramps is not sloped toward the gutter (no more than 2 percent), water and debris
can pool there and obstruct passage along the sidewalk.Parallel curb ramps also require those wishing to
continue along the sidewalk to negotiate two ramp grades, unless a wide buffer zone permits the sidewalk
to be set back behind the ramps.A combination perpendicular and parallel ramp will significantly reduce
the ramp grades for people who wish to continue along the sidewalk (Figure 4-25).

Figure 4-24: Parallel curb ramps work well on narrow sidewalks but require users continuing on the
pathway to negotiate two ramp grades.

Figure 4-25: A combination curb ramp is a creative way to avoid steep curb ramps and still provide level
landings.

4.4.1.3.4 Built-up curb ramps

Built-up curb ramps are oriented in the same direction as perpendicular curb ramps but project out from
the curb.For this reason, built-up curb ramps can be installed on narrow sidewalks but are most often
installed in parking lots. If an edge protection is not provided on built-up curb ramps between the ramp
and the sidewalk, people with visual disabilities might not be able to distinguish between the sidewalk and
the street.According to ADAAG, built-up curb ramps should not extend into a vehicular traffic lane
(ADAAG,U.S. Access Board, 1991).Built-up curb ramps also should not extend into bicycle lanes because
they might present a hazard for cyclists.

Built-up curb ramps have additional drainage requirements because they block the gutter. Possible
solutions include providing drainage inlets or placing a drainage pipe under the curb ramp (Figures 4-26
and 4-27).
Figure 4-26: Built-up curb ramp with drainage inlets.

Figure 4-27: Built-up curb ramp with a drainage pipe.

4.4.1.4 Curb ramp placement

In addition to specifying curb ramp designs, most transportation agencies provide specifications for their
placement.Curb ramp placement can be especially complicated in retrofit situations.

Relocating or redesigning the intersection and street furniture can be expensive.Many sidewalk
characteristics, including width, elevation of buildings, and position of street furniture, can affect the curb
ramp design chosen. In retrofit situations in which sidewalk width is limited, parallel curb ramps might
provide more gradual slopes and landings.

Curb ramps that force users to cross storm drain inlets often present hidden risks to pedestrians. The
grates covering such inlets can catch the casters of wheelchairs or the tips of canes and walkers, causing
falls and injuries. Water at the base of curb ramps can obscure the transition from the ramp to the gutter
and cause pedestrians to misjudge the terrain.Puddles at the base of curb ramps can also freeze and
cause users to slip. Locating drain inlets uphill from curb ramps will reduce the amount of water that
collects at the base.
Curb ramps ending in parking spaces are not usable when blocked by parked vehicles. This situation can
be prevented through parking enforcement and warning signs but perhaps more effectively through the
use of curb extensions (see Section 4.4.9 for additional information on curb extensions).

Perpendicular curb ramps should be built 90 degrees to the curb face. At a corner with a tight turning
radius, a perpendicular curb ramp built 90 degrees to the curb face will be oriented toward the
crosswalk.This is helpful to users because they can follow the ramp path directly across the street. Curb
ramps aligned with the crosswalk also reduce the maneuvering that wheelchair users must perform to use
the ramp.

At corners with larger turning radii, the curb ramp cannot always point in the direction of the crosswalk
and be perpendicular to the curb face. In some cities, designers align curb ramps parallel to the
crosswalk,causing the ramp face to be skewed.This design has some benefit to people with visual
impairments because they can use the path of the curb ramp to direct them across the street.
However,people with visual impairments tend not to rely on the direction of curb ramps because of the
abundance of diagonal curb ramps that point into the center of the street.

In addition, if the curb ramp is not perpendicular to the curb, as illustrated in Figure 4-28, wheelchair users
have to negotiate changing cross-slopes and changing grades simultaneously, or they have to turn while
making the grade transition. Turning at the grade transition requires a wheelchair user traveling down a
curb ramp to go down one edge of the ramp and try to turn while on a significant grade. Curb ramps that
are perpendicular to the curb prevent wheelchair users from having to turn at the ramp to a gutter
transition (Figure 4-29).

Figure 4-28: To avoid having to negotiate changing grades and changing cross-slope simultaneously, a
wheelchair user has to turn at the grade transition.
Figure 4-29: Curb ramps designed with the ramp perpendicular the curb eliminate rapidly changing
grades and cross-slopes at the grade transition.

4.4.1.5 Curb ramps and people with visual impairments

People with visual impairments do not use curb ramps in the same manner as people with mobility
impairments. Although people with visual impairments can obtain helpful navigational cues from
perpendicular curb ramps, they can learn the same information from the edge of the curb.Curb ramps and
flare slopes that are steep enough relative to the grade of the surrounding sidewalk are more detectable
than gradually sloped curb ramps or depressed corners (GA Institute of Technology, 1979).If people with
visual impairments are unable to detect a curb ramp,they will not know that they are moving into the
street.Installing detectable warnings on ramps can help people with visual impairments detect the
upcoming intersection (see Section 4.4.2).Some States also require minimum curb ramp slopes to
improve detectability for people with visual impairments.

It is commonly believed that the orientation of curb ramps helps people with visual impairments determine
the direction of the crosswalk. However, this technique is generally not taught or used because many curb
ramps are not aligned with the path of travel across the street.The skew of diagonal curb ramps can be a
particular source of confusion to people with visual impairments if other sidewalk cues present conflicting
information about the intersection. Some dog-guide users interviewed for this project said they were most
wary of diagonal curb ramps because their dogs might follow the curb ramp path out into the middle of the
intersection. However, most people with visual impairments interviewed said that while a diagonal slope
to the sidewalk indicated the presence of an intersection,they used other cues, such as the sound of
traffic, to orient for the crossing.

4.4.2 Conveying Information to Pedestrians with Visual Impairments

All pedestrians must obtain a certain amount of information from the environment to travel along
sidewalks safely and efficiently. Most pedestrians obtain this essential information visually,by seeing such
cues as intersections,traffic lights, street signs, and traffic movements. People with visual impairments
also use cues in the environment to travel along sidewalks.For example, the sound of traffic,the slope of
curb ramps, changes in surface texture, and a shadow from an overhead awning serve as primary
indicators of an upcoming intersection for people with visual impairments. Blind pedestrians also use their
ability to estimate distances and directions they have walked (dead reckoning) to determine their location
relative to desired destinations (Long and Hill, in Blasch et al., 1997).

Good design in the form of regularly aligned streets, simple crossing patterns,and easy-to-understand city
layouts is generally the best method to provide good orientation cues for pedestrians with visual
impairments. However,accessible information might be needed in some situations to supplement existing
information. Locations where supplementary information is most beneficial include irregular
intersections,open spaces such as plazas, raised intersections, and curb ramps with a slope less than
8.33 percent.

Some cues that people with visual impairments use are permanent, such as the edge of the curb; other
cues, such as the sound of traffic, are intermittent.Although the sound of traffic is a very effective way for
people with visual impairments to identify an intersection,it is unreliable because cars are not always
present. Another issue that affects the usefulness of cues is a person's familiarity with the
environment.For example, a person who lives near an intersection with a pedestrian-actuated control
signal might be able to identify it easily because of repeated use and familiarity with its presence.
However, a person who is unfamiliar with the intersection would be less likely to detect such a device.
The most reliable cues for people with visual impairments are permanent and can be detected even in
unfamiliar environments.

People with visual impairments should have access to the same information as sighted pedestrians when
traveling in unfamiliar areas. To accommodate all pedestrians, it is important to provide information that
can be assimilated using more than one sense. For example, an intersection that contains a raised tactile
surface warning,a WALK signal light, and an audible pedestrian signal would be more accessible than an
intersection that provides only a WALK signal light.Redundancy and multiplicity of formats increase the
likelihood that people with impairments and others will be able to make informed traveling decisions.

The most effective accessible information is easy to locate and intuitive to understand,even for
pedestrians who are unfamiliar with an area. People with visual impairments stress the importance of
consistency in design because accessible information added to the environment is most useful "when
used in consistent locations so that the traveler can rely on their existence" and find them reliably (Peck
and Bentzen, 1987). Users would benefit if each type of accessible indicator were exclusively reserved to
indicate a specific situation in the pedestrian environment and consistently installed to avoid conveying
conflicting and confusing information. Studies in the United Kingdom have shown that pedestrians with
visual impairments can reliably detect, distinguish, and remember a limited number of different tactile
paving surfaces and the distinct meanings assigned to them (Department of the Environment, Transport,
and the Regions, Scottish Office, Notified Draft, 1997).

Visual, auditory, and tactile perceptual information is very useful in detecting cues and landmarks
essential to wayfinding and is also important in detecting obstacles and hazards. Mobility is defined as
"the act or ability to move from one's present position to one's desired position in another part of the
environment safely, gracefully, and comfortably." Wayfinding is defined as "the process of navigating
through an environment and traveling to places by relatively direct paths" (Long and Hill, in Blasch et al.,
1997). The long cane is a primary example of an environmental probe that allows blind pedestrians to
acquire perceptual information about their immediate environment systematically and efficiently. The long
cane helps users establish and maintain orientation, as well as detect and avoid hazards.

Because people with visual impairments obtain information about the environment in many ways, the
most effective cues convey information in more than one format.For example, truncated domes can be
detected not only by texture but by sound and color contrast as well. The greater number of sensory
qualities (color, texture,resilience, and sound) the cue has, the more likely it will be detected and
understood (Sanford and Steinfeld, 1985). The following are common types of accessible information
added to sidewalk environments:

 Raised tactile surfaces used as detectable warnings

 Raised tactile surfaces used for wayfinding
 Materials with contrasting sound properties
 Grooves
 Contrasting colors for people with low vision
 Audible and vibrotactile pedestrian signals

4.4.2.1 Raised tactile surfaces used as detectable warnings

Raised tactile surfaces used as warnings employ textures detectable with the touch of a foot or sweep of
a cane to indicate upcoming hazards or changes in the pedestrian environment. Many different types of
raised tactile surfaces have been proven to be detectable by people with visual disabilities. However,
tactile surfaces used as detectable warnings should meet the technical specifications in ADAAG (see
Section 4.4.2.7) to avoid confusion with tactile surfaces used for wayfinding. Raised tactile surfaces
include truncated domes, patterned panels, and other textured designs. Tactile surfaces used as
detectable warnings must also provide color contrast with surrounding surface materials.

Figure 4-30: Truncated domes are an effective way of indicating a drop-off at transit platform.

Raised tactile surfaces have been shown to be very effective in actual application.BART in the San
Francisco Bay Area and METRO DADE transit in Miami have used raised tactile surfaces as systemwide
warnings on platform edges since 1989 and have documented no instances of rider dissatisfaction with
truncated dome surfaces (Figure 4-30). In contrast, the overall incidence of trips, slips, and falls at
platform edges has been significantly reduced. In addition, BART riders exhibit an increased sense of
drop-off awareness by tending to "stand farther from the platform edge than MUNI (San Francisco) riders
standing at different tracks in the same stations but lacking detectable warnings" (Bentzen, Nolin, and
Easton, 1994).

Domes with truncated tops are generally more comfortable than other dome designs for pedestrians to
travel across (O'Leary, Lockwood, Taylor, and Lavely, 1995).Low truncated domes have been used to
provide warning information in a number of countries, including the United Kingdom (Department of the
Environment, Transport, and the Regions,Scottish Office, Notified Draft, 1997), and Japan (Sawai,
Takato, and Tauchi, 1998).In the United States, truncated domes are required at transit platform drop-offs
(US DOJ, 1991; US DOT, 1991).

The detectability of raised tactile surfaces can depend upon the degree of contrast between the surface
and the surrounding surface materials. For example, raised detectable surfaces have been shown to be
significantly less detectable when located adjacent to coarse aggregate concrete (Bentzen, Nolin, Easton,
Desmarais, and Mitchell, 1994). Raised surfaces are thus much more effective when placed next to
smooth paving materials such as brushed concrete.

Climate can determine what type of detectable surface is most appropriate for a region. For example, ice
was found to obscure the textural contrast of some raised surface materials (U.S. Access Board, 1985).
Surfaces that withstand scraping by snowplows, minimize the collection of precipitation such as snow and
ice, and resist degradation by snowmelting additives such as salt are most effective in colder areas.
Some cities in the United States have discontinued the use of truncated domes at curb ramps because
the materials used wore down quickly and could not be plowed free of snow. However, New York and
New Jersey, both areas that experience significant amounts of snow and ice, continue to use raised
tactile surfaces (O'Leary, Lockwood,Taylor, and Lavely, 1995).

The length of raised tactile surfaces in the path of travel is most effective when "beyond the average
stride in length" so that pedestrians with visual disabilities can "sense it physically, understand its
meaning, and react appropriately" before the hazard is encountered (U.S. Access Board, 1995).
However, there is a definite trade-off between the high detectability of raised tactile surfaces for people
with visual disabilities and ease of movement for people with mobility disabilities (O'Leary, Lockwood,
Taylor, and Lavely, 1995).

Several researchers suggested limiting the width of detectable warnings to no more than that required to
provide effective warning for people with visual impairments "given the moderately increased level of
difficulty and decrease in safety" that raised tactile surfaces on slopes pose for people with physical
disabilities (Bentzen, Nolin, Easton, Desmarais, and Mitchell, 1994; Rabelle, Zabihaylo, and Gresset,
1998; Hughes, 1995). Truncated domes that are uneven or too high can cause navigation difficulties for
certain sidewalk users, including some bicyclists and in-line skaters. People who use walking aids and
pedestrians wearing high heels might lose some stability along ramps covered with raised tactile
surfaces.Neither manual nor powered wheelchair users appear to be at significant risk of instability when
traveling on ramps with raised warnings (Hughes, 1995).

4.4.2.2 Raised tactile surfaces used for wayfinding

Raised tactile surfaces also might provide wayfinding information to people with visual impairments,
delineating paths across open plazas, crosswalks, and complex indoor environments such as transit
stations. Wayfinding cues include raised tactile surfaces covered with bar patterns laid out in a path to
indicate the appropriate walking direction, especially along routes where traditional cues such as property
lines, curb edges, and building perimeters are unavailable. In Japan, bar tile has been used to direct
pedestrians with visual impairments along transit stations and other heavily used pedestrian areas
(Sawai, Takato, and Tauchi, 1998).
The city of Sacramento, California, uses a tactile guidestrip located in the center of some crosswalks to
direct people with visual impairments across "irregular and complex" intersections. A San Francisco
report recommended guidestrips at intersections with more than two streets, unusual crosswalks, right-
turn lanes,diagonal crossings, exceptionally wide streets, and intersections with other unusual geometric
designs (San Francisco Bureau of Engineering, 1996).

Hughes (1995) recommended that "mixed" patterns of both bar tiles and dome tiles be developed for use
on curb ramps to provide orientation, as well as warning information, at intersections.However, research
in Japan indicated that subjects who were blind had difficulty distinguishing between detectable surfaces
with bars and dots or domes.In fact, confusion between warning and guiding tiles was suspected as the
cause of several train platform accidents in Japan (Bentzen, Nolin, and Easton, 1994).

4.4.2.3 Materials with contrasting sound properties

Adjacent surfacing materials that make different sounds when tapped by a cane can also serve as
navigation cues (U.S. Access Board, 1985). Examples of materials with contrasting sound properties
include concrete sidewalks next to textured metal, or paving tiles next to rubberized raised tactile
surfaces. Materials with contrasting sound properties are used along curb ramps, crosswalks, and
transportation platforms. Contrasting materials can also be colored differently from the surrounding paving
material (Figure 4-31) or textured to provide visual and tactile information as well.

Figure 4-31: Colored stone sidewalks with concrete curb ramps have a detectable color change.

Materials used to provide sound contrasts should be appropriate to the given setting.For example,
materials that degrade in harsh weather conditions or become slippery or hazardous when icy should not
be installed outdoors but might be appropriate for indoor environments such as transit stations. People
who use dog guides have a reduced opportunity to use sound cues, as described in this section.

4.4.2.4 Grooves

Grooves are common and inexpensive to install, but there is little evidence that they can be detected or
used by people with visual disabilities. One study indicated that concrete panels with various groove
configurations had only a 9 to 40 percent detectability rate (Templer, Wineman, and Zimring, 1982).Cane
users could confuse them with the grooves between sidewalk panels and cracks in the sidewalk.
Long-cane users typically travel using a "two-point touch" technique and only scrape the tip of the cane
along the ground in the "constant contact" technique when more in-depth exploration of an area is
warranted. However, in general, grooves can be detected only by a cane if the constant-contact technique
is used to scan the environment. For this reason,grooves are generally ineffective to warn of a potentially
hazardous situation such as an intersection. In addition, dirt, snow,ice, weeds, and other debris in the
sidewalk environment are likely to collect in grooves and obscure any warning provided.

4.4.2.5 Contrasting colors for people with low vision

Contrasting colors such as yellow paint against black asphalt can indicate a change in environment for
people with low vision. Texture differences may also be detected by people with low vision.For example,
although sidewalk grooves do not provide a significant tactile contrast,some people with low vision can
detect groove patterns visually.The color contrast of visual warnings helps both sighted and partially
sighted pedestrians to identify potentially hazardous areas.Colorized warnings are particularly useful for
all pedestrians at night, when visual acuity and contrast sensitivity are impaired.Variations in surface
coloring between the crosswalk and the street can also be used to mark the best path across an
intersection.Reflective paint and building materials of contrasting colors are common methods used to
provide visual warnings.

ADAAG Section 4.29.2 specifies that detectable warnings "shall contrast visually with adjoining surfaces,
either light-on-dark, or dark-on-light." ADAAG Section A4.29.2 further specifies that "the material used to
provide contrast should contrast by at least 70%" (ADAAG, U.S. Access Board, 1991). The effectiveness
of ADAAG's recommendations for color contrast was evaluated by Bentzen, Lolin, and Easton (1994).
The study concluded that the ADAAG 70 percent contrast recommendation "appears adequate to provide
high visual detectability" but cautioned that minimum reflectance values should also be specified for the
lighter surface to limit the effects of glare.The study also reported that surfaces colored safety yellow (ISO
3864) were most frequently chosen by low vision subjects as "most visually detectable" (Bentzen, Nolin,
and Easton, 1994).

During the sidewalk assessments,visual warnings used on sidewalks were observed to include painted
curb edges,tinted curb ramps, colored sidewalks (Figure 4-31), colorized raised tactile warnings, and
painted crosswalks.

4.4.2.6 Audible and vibrotactile pedestrian signals

Although people with visual impairments generally rely on traffic surges to determine when it is safe to
cross an intersection, additional information about crossing conditions can be very useful when traffic
sounds are sporadic or masked by ambient noise, the geometry of the intersection is irregular, or
acoustics are poor. Accessible pedestrian signals can provide supplementary information,such as timing
(when the signal cycle allows pedestrians to cross the street),wayfinding (which roads intersect at the
junction), and orientation (the directional heading of each crosswalk). Accessible pedestrian signals are
generally installed at complex intersections; intersections experiencing high volumes of turning traffic;
major corridors leading to areas of fundamental importance such as post offices, courthouses, and
hospitals;and places where people with visual impairments request them (Bentzen, 1998).

A number of different types of accessible pedestrian signals have been developed and were analyzed in a
1998 synthesis by B.L. Bentzen. These include audible broadcast, tactile, vibrotactile, and receiver-based
systems, many of which may be integrated with each other to provide additional sources of information.

Audible traffic signals (ATSs) include devices that emit audible sounds when the signal permits
pedestrians to cross.ATSs "comprise a warning system that alerts the pedestrian to the onset of a green
light" (Hall, Rabelle, and Zabihaylo, 1994). Simple systems use a consistent sound to indicate when the
signal has changed. More complex systems use one sound pattern to indicate north/south streets, and
another sound to indicate east/west streets, providing both timing and orientation information. Others
broadcast prerecorded speech messages telling the name of the street being crossed and the status of
the signal cycle (Bentzen, 1998). Street crossings that can be negotiated easily by people with visual
impairments are preferred to ATS systems. These systems should be installed only "as a last resort, and
only when the installation will guarantee the safety of the visually impaired pedestrian" (Hall, Rabelle, and
Zabihaylo, 1994).

Alternating ATS systems, in which speakers on either side of the street alternate indicator sounds,
provide alignment assistance for pedestrians with visual impairments. "An alternating signal counters the
masking effect of the nearby signal [and] promotes more accurate alignment before crossing and straight-
line travel throughout the crossing" (Hall,Rabelle, and Zabihaylo, 1994). Alternating ATS systems result in
a straighter line of travel because they allow people with visual disabilities "to align themselves more
accurately before and during the crossing. . . ." (Hall, Rabelle, and Zabihaylo, 1994).

Audible information is also useful to identify pedestrian-actuated control signals. Audible pedestrian
signals that alert pedestrians to the existence and location of the signal actuator include push-button
devices that emit sounds.Tactile pedestrian signals include raised arrows on the signal actuator that
indicate which street is controlled by the push button.Tactile pedestrian signals can also provide map
information, using raised dot and line symbols to indicate details such as the number of lanes to be
crossed, the direction of traffic in each lane, and whether there is a median (Bentzen, 1998).

Vibrotactile traffic devices also can provide information about the presence and location of a pedestrian-
actuated signal. In vibrotactile systems, the push-button apparatus will vibrate while pedestrians are
permitted to cross. Such systems allow deaf-blind pedestrians to identify the WALK interval and can be
installed at medians to prevent signal overlap when audible broadcast signals are in effect (Bentzen,
1998).

Receiver-based systems provide audible or other accessible information only when triggered by a nearby
pedestrian-carried receiver. The Talking Signs® system,for example, uses transmitters that emit infrared
beams containing prerecorded speech information. The speech message can label streets, transit kiosks,
and other areas. The transmitters can be mounted on traffic poles, buildings, and other significant
locations. Pedestrians using the system carry a receiver that picks up the infrared signals and plays them
back as audible messages. This system provides both orientation and wayfinding information. The user
can hone in on the transmitter's location because the messages are played most clearly when the
receiver is oriented directly toward the transmitter (Bentzen, 1997, in Blasch et al.)

4.4.2.7 ADAAG requirements for detectable warnings

When ADAAG was first approved in 1991, it contained requirements for detectable warnings at curb
ramps, transit platforms, reflecting pools, and hazardous vehicular areas. ADAAG defined a detectable
warning as "a standardized surface feature built in or applied to walking surfaces or other elements to
warn visually impaired people of hazards on a circulation path." Detectable warnings on walking surfaces
were required to be truncated domes with a diameter of 23 mm (0.9 in.), a height of 5 mm (0.2 in.) and a
center-to-center spacing of 60 mm (2.35 in.). In addition, detectable warnings had to offer a strong visual
contrast to adjacent pedestrian surfaces and had to be an integral part of the walking surface (ADAAG,
U.S. Access Board, 1991).

On April 1, 1994, the ADAAG scoping provisions for detectable warnings at curb ramps, hazardous
vehicular areas, and reflecting pools were initially suspended until July 1996, and were later extended
until July 26, 1998, and 2001, while the requirements for detectable warnings at transit platforms
remained in effect.The requirement was initially suspended to allow the U.S. Access Board, the US DOJ,
and the US DOT to consider the results of additional research on the need for and safety effects of
detectable warnings at vehicular–pedestrian intersections.
The study found that, although detectable warnings were not shown to be needed at all curb ramp
locations, they did provide "the blind traveler with one potential additional cue that is especially useful in a
low-cue environment." Many nonvisual cues used to detect streets are intermittent, such as the sound of
traffic. Detectable warning surfaces provide a permanent cue that identifies the transition between the
sidewalk and the street. The study concluded that "the effectiveness of detectable warning surfaces on
curb ramps depends greatly on other aspects of the design of the intersection, as well as on such social
factors as the density of traffic and the skills of the traveler." The study recommended the installation of a
2-foot-wide strip of detectable surface at the curb line as an alternative to covering the entire surface of
the ramp (Hauger et al., 1996).
Chapter 4 (cont.)- Sidewalk Design Guidelines and
Existing Practices
4.4.3 Driveway Crossings

Driveway crossings permit cars to cross the sidewalk and enter the street, and they consist of the same
components found in curb ramps. It is the driver's responsibility to yield to the pedestrian at the driveway–
sidewalk interface.

Figure 4-32: Driveway crossings without landings confront wheelchair users with severe and rapidly
changing cross-slopes at the driveway flare.

Figure 4-33: When sidewalks have a planter strip, the ramp of the driveway does not interfere with a
pedestrian's path of travel.

Figure 4-34: On wide sidewalks, there is enough room to provide a ramp for drivers and retain a level
landing for pedestrians.
Figure 4-35: Jogging the sidewalk back from the street provides a level landing for pedestrians on narrow
sidewalks.

Figure 4-36: Although parallel driveway crossings provide users with level landings, users continuing on
the sidewalk are forced to negotiate two ramps.

Figure 4-37: Inaccessible sidewalk caused by many individual parking lots.

Figure 4-38: Improved accessibility created by combining parking lots and reducing the number of
entrances and exits.
Intersections of driveways and sidewalks are the most common locations of severe cross-slopes for
sidewalk users. Some inaccessible driveway crossings have cross-slopes that match the grade of the
driveway because a level area is not provided for the crossing pedestrian.This type of crossing can be
very difficult for people who use wheelchairs or walking aids (Figure 4-32).

Rapid changes in cross-slope usually occur at driveway flares and are most problematic when they occur
over a distance of less than 0.610 m (24 in), or the approximate length of a wheelchair wheelbase. As the
wheelchair moves over the surface of a severely warped driveway flare, it will first balance on the two rear
wheels and one front caster. As the

Wide sidewalks can be designed similar to sidewalks with a setback if the upper portion of the sidewalk is
leveled for pedestrians and the bottom portion is sloped for automobiles (Figure 4-34).

A level landing area can be achieved on narrow sidewalks if the sidewalk is jogged back from the street
as it crosses the driveway (Figure 4-35). Purchasing additional land to jog the sidewalk back should be
strongly considered when there is not enough space for a level sidewalk.

Similar to a parallel curb ramp, a parallel driveway crossing provides a level landing by lowering the
sidewalk to the grade of the street (Figure 4-36). This design is preferable to the severe cross-slopes at
some driveway crossings, but it is not as easy to negotiate as setback and wide sidewalk designs. With
this type of crossing, drivers assume that they can speed up on the level portion next to the street. In
addition, the parallel ramp can produce steep grades on both sides of the driveway and initiate drainage
problems on the landing.

Commercial districts with front parking between the sidewalk and the buildings are often designed with a
series of individual lots with individual entrances and exits (Figure 4-37).This design increases the
number of driveway crossings and forces pedestrians to encounter automobiles repeatedly. If the
driveway crossings do not have level landings, people with mobility disabilities must also repeatedly
negotiate severe cross-slopes.To improve access for all pedestrians,including pedestrians with mobility
disabilities, individual parking lots should be combined to reduce the number of entrances and exits. The
remaining driveway crossings should be retrofitted to include level landings (Figure 4-38).

4.4.4 Medians and Islands

Medians and islands help pedestrians cross streets by providing refuge areas that are physically
separated from the automobile path of travel. A median separates opposing lanes of traffic. An island is a
protected spot within a crosswalk for pedestrians to wait to continue crossing the street or to board
transportation such as a bus. Medians and islands are useful at irregularly shaped intersections, such as
where two roads converge into one (Earnhart and Simon, 1987).
Medians and islands reduce the crossing distance from the curb and allow pedestrians to cross during
smaller gaps in traffic. Examples of cut-through medians and ramped and cut-through islands are shown
in Figure 4-39 and 4-40. Medians and islands are useful to pedestrians who are unable to judge distances
accurately. Medians and islands also help people with slow walking speeds cross long intersections with
short signal cycles. Because medians and islands separate traffic into channels going in specific
directions, they require crossing pedestrians to watch for traffic coming in only one direction.

According to ADAAG, a raised island or median should be level with the street or have curb ramps at all
sides and a level area 1.220 m (48 in) long in all directions.If a cut-through design is used, it should be at
least 0.915 m (36 in) wide. Cutthrough medians are easier for wheelchair users and other people with
mobility impairments to negotiate than ramps.In addition, the edge of a cut-through can provide directional
information to people with visual impairments. However, if the cut-through is too wide, people with visual
impairments might not detect the presence of a median or island. For this reason,the width of the cut-
through should be limited to ensure detection by people with visual impairments.A detectable warning on
the surface of the cut-through will also improve detectability.

4.4.5 Crosswalks

Crosswalks are a critical part of the pedestrian network. A crosswalk is defined as "the portion of a
roadway designated for pedestrians to use in crossing the street" and may be either marked or unmarked
(Institute of Transportation Engineers, Technical Council Committee 5A-5, 1998).

Figure 4-39: Cut-through corner island and center median (based on OR DOT, 1995).

Figure 4-40: Ramped corner island and cut-through median (based on OR DOT, 1995).
Figure 4-41: Two horizontal lines are the most common crosswalk markings.

Figure 4-42: A ladder design was found to be the most visible type of pedestrian crosswalk marking.
Figure 4-43: Diagonal markings enhance visibility.

Marked crosswalks are most effective when they can be identified easily by motorists. However, many
pedestrians,including pedestrians with low vision,benefit from clearly marked crosswalks.For this reason,
proposed Section 14 (1994) required marked crossings to be "delineated in materials or markings that
provide a visual contrast with the surface of the street" (U.S. Access Board,1994b). Most State DOTs
follow the Manual of Uniform Traffic Control Devices (MUTCD) guidelines for marking crosswalks.
Although the MUTCD does permit some variations for additional visibility, the basic specifications call for
solid white lines not less than 150 mm (6 in) marking both edges of the crosswalk and spaced at least
1.830 m (72 in) apart (US DOT, 1988) (Figure 4-41). A study by Knoblauch, Testin, Smith, and Pietrucha
(1988) found the ladder design, shown in Figure 4-42, to be the most visible type of crosswalk marking for
drivers. Diagonal striping can also enhance the visibility of a pedestrian crossing (Figure 4-43).
When a diagonal curb ramp is used at an intersection, a 1.220-m (48-in) clear space should be provided
to allow ramp users enough room to maneuver into the crosswalk.

In some situations, marked crosswalks might not be enough to ensure pedestrian safety. For example, at
high-speed intersections without traffic signals, drivers often cannot perceive a marked crosswalk quickly
enough to react to pedestrians in the roadway. This problem is compounded by the fact that "pedestrians
may 'feel safer' within a marked crosswalk and expect motorists to act more cautiously" (Institute of
Transportation Engineers, Technical Council Committee 5A-5, 1998). Some agencies around the United
States consider that removing crosswalk markings improves pedestrian safety.Alternative treatments
such as electronically activated crosswalks,pedestrian-actuated traffic controls,flashing traffic signals, light
guard flashing crosswalks, traffic calming measures, raised crosswalks, and traffic signals are also being
used. FHWA studies are currently being conducted to determine if these measures provide safer crossing
for pedestrians.

Most marked crosswalks observed during the sidewalk assessments were marked with paint. Others
were built with contrasting materials such as red brick inside the crosswalk, bordered with gray concrete.
Contrasting textures can provide tactile guidance for people with visual impairments, as well as visible
colorized warnings.

4.4.6 Crossing Times

People's walking pace and starting pace varies depending on their personal situation. Older pedestrians
might require longer starting times to verify that cars have stopped. They also might have slower reaction
times and slower walking speeds. Powered wheelchair users and manual wheelchair users on level or
downhill slopes might travel faster than other pedestrians. But on uphill slopes,manual wheelchair users
might have slower travel speeds. At intersections without audible pedestrian signals,people with visual
impairments generally require longer starting times because they rely on the sound of traffic for signal-
timing information.

The AASHTO Green Book indicates that "average walking speeds range from 0.8 to 1.8 m/s." The
MUTCD assumes an average walking speed of 1.220 m/s (4 ft/s). However, research on pedestrian
walking speeds has demonstrated that more than 60 percent of pedestrians walk more slowly and that 15
percent of pedestrians walk at less than 1.065 m/s (3.5 ft/s) (Kell and Fullerton, 1982).The AASHTO
Green Book recommends a walking rate of 1.0 m/s (39 in/s) for older pedestrians (AASHTO, 1995).

Pedestrians of all mobility levels need to cross intersections. However, when crossing times
accommodate only people who walk at or above the average walking speed, intersections become
unusable for people who walk at a slower pace.To accommodate the slower walking speeds of some
pedestrians, transportation agencies should consider extending their pedestrian signal cycles. Signal
timing should be determined on a case-by-case basis, although extended signal cycles are strongly
recommended at busy intersections that are unusually long or difficult to negotiate.

4.4.7 Pedestrian-Actuated Traffic Controls

Pedestrian-actuated traffic controls require the user to push a button to activate a walk signal. According
to the MUTCD, pedestrian-actuated traffic controls should be installed when a traffic signal is installed
under the Pedestrian Volume or School Crossing warrant, when an exclusive pedestrian phase is
provided, when vehicular indications are not visible to pedestrians,and at any established school
crossings with a signalized intersection (US DOT,1988). If the intersection has a median,a button should
be added to the median and both corners.

Unfortunately, pedestrian-actuated control signals are often inaccessible to people with mobility
impairments and people with visual impairments.To be accessible to wheelchair users and people with
limited mobility, pedestrianactuated traffic controls need to be located as close as possible to the curb
ramp without reducing the width of the path. They also need to be mounted low enough to permit people
in wheelchairs to reach the buttons. ADAAG does not specify a height for pedestrian-actuated control
systems. However, ADAAG Section 4.10.3 states that elevator buttons should be located no higher than
1.065 m (42 in) (ADAAG, U.S. Access Board,1991).

The size and type of the button also affect the accessibility of the control. Larger raised buttons are easier
for people with visual impairments to identify (Figure 4-44). According to proposed Section 14 (1994),
buttons should be raised above or flush with their housings and be at least 50 mm (2 in) in the smallest
dimension (U.S. Access Board, 1994b).

Figure 4-44: A large, easy-to-press button makes pedestrianactuated traffic controls more usable for
people with limited hand strength and dexterity.

Pedestrian-actuated control buttons require more force to operate than most indoor buttons. However,
people with limited hand strength or dexterity might be able to exert only a limited amount of force.To
address this need, proposed Section 14 (1994) recommended that the force required to activate controls
should not be greater than 22.2 N (5 lbf) (U.S. Access Board,1994b).

People with visual impairments might be at a disadvantage at intersections with pedestrian-actuated

crossing controls if they are unaware that they need to use a control to initiate a pedestrian crossing
signal. At an intersection with a pedestrian-actuated control button, a person with a visual impairment
must detect whether a signal button is present,then push it and return to the curb to align for the crossing.
This process might require several signal cycles if the button is not located within easy reach of the curb
edge. People with visual impairments can confirm the presence of and locate pedestrian-actuated
crossing controls more easily if the controls emit sounds and/or vibrations.To address the need for
pedestrian-actuated control signals that are accessible to people with visual impairments,TEA-21
provides funding for "the installation,where appropriate,and maintenance of audible traffic signals and
audible signs at street crossings" (TEA-21, 1998).Accessible pedestrian signals that accommodate
people with visual impairments are discussed in Section 4.4.2.6 of this report.

Many varieties of controls were observed during the sidewalk assessments. The most accessible were
relatively large and could be activated with little force. Those that were least accessible were
small,required significant force to activate, and were located far from the logical crossing point. Some
pedestrian-actuated traffic controls were positioned so that users standing at the edge of the sidewalk had
to walk around traffic poles to reach the control button. In other instances,obstacles such as newspaper
stands were placed in front of the controls, blocking access to the trigger mechanism.Intersections with
awkwardly placed pedestrian-actuated controls can be made more accessible by moving the control to a
more easily reached location or altering the signal timing to allow pedestrians to realign themselves for a
crossing before the light changes.

4.4.8 Midblock Crossings

Midblock crossings are pedestrian crossing points that do not occur at intersections. They are often
installed in areas with heavy pedestrian traffic to provide more frequent crossing opportunities. For
midblock crossings to be accessible to people with mobility impairments, a curb ramp needs to be
installed at both ends of the crossing along a direct line of travel. If the curb ramps are offset, pedestrians
who rely on the curb ramps are forced to travel in the street.

For midblock crossings to be accessible to people with visual impairments, they need to be detectable.At
midblock crossings, pedestrians with visual impairments do not have the sound of parallel traffic available
to identify a midblock crossing opportunity. If a traffic signal is installed,an audible indicator that provides
timing information should also be included.Audible or vibrotactile information is effective in alerting people
with visual impairments of a midblock crossing.

Midblock crossings spanning multiple lanes can be difficult for some pedestrians to cross. In these
situations, curb extensions can be effective in reducing crossing times and increasing visibility between
pedestrians and motorists (Figure 4-45). A median is another effective method to reduce crossing
distances.

4.4.9 Sight Distances

Sight distance is defined as "the distance a person can see along an unobstructed line of sight"
(University of North Carolina, Highway Safety Research Center, 1996). Adequate sight distances between
pedestrians and motorists increase pedestrian safety. Motorists also need appropriate sight distances to
see traffic signals in time to stop. Vertical sight distance can be important for drivers of high vehicles such
as trucks and buses, whose sight lines might be blocked by trees or signs (ibid.).Although bollards,
landscaping, parking, benches,or bus shelters make pedestrian areas more inviting by calming traffic and
providing amenities, they can also clutter the environment and block sight lines between motorists and
pedestrians waiting to cross the intersection.

Figure 4-45: Curb extensions at midblock crossings help reduce crossing distance.
Figure 4-46: Sight line obstructed by parked cars prevents drivers from seeing pedestrians starting to
cross the street.

Trimming vegetation, relocating signs,and hanging more than one sign or traffic signal on one arm pole
where permitted by MUTCD can improve sight distances at corners.Parked cars near the intersection or
midblock crossing can also reduce sight distances (Figure 4-46).Installing curb extensions physically
deters parking at intersection corners and improves the visibility of pedestrians, as shown in Figures 4-47
and 4-48. Curb extensions can also increase the angle at which pedestrians meet motor
vehicles,improving the visibility of both (OR DOT,1995). In addition, curb extensions shorten crossing
distances and provide sidewalk space for curb ramps with landings.

Figure 4-47: Partial curb extensions improve visibility between pedestrians and motorists.
Figure 4-48: Full curb extensions improve visibility between pedestrians and motorists.

Figure 4-49: Pedestrian and biker underpass.

4.4.10 Grade-Separated Crossings

Grade-separated crossings are facilities that allow pedestrians and motor vehicles to cross at different
levels. Some grade separated crossings are very steep and are difficult for people with mobility
impairments to negotiate. In addition, grade-separated crossings are extremely costly to construct and are
often not considered pedestrian-friendly because pedestrians are forced to travel out of their way to use
the underpass or overpass. The effectiveness of a grade-separated crossing depends on whether or not
pedestrians perceive that it is easier to use than a street crossing (Bowman, Fruin, and Zegeer, 1989).

Examples of grade-separated crossings include the following (Institute of Transportation Engineers

Technical Council Committee 5A-5, 1998):

 Overpasses - bridges, elevated walkways, and skywalks or skyways

 Underpasses - pedestrian tunnels and below-grade pedestrian networks

Figure 4-49 illustrates a pedestrian underpass.

The needs of pedestrians should be a high priority at grade-separated crossings.If designed correctly,
grade-separated crossings can reduce pedestrian-vehicle conflicts and potential accidents by allowing
pedestrians to avoid crossing the path of traffic. They can also limit vehicle delay, increase highway
capacity, and reduce vehicle accidents when appropriately located and designed.Grade-separated
crossings can improve pedestrian safety, reduce travel time,and serve to maintain the continuity of a
neighborhood in which high-traffic roads run through residential areas (University of North
Carolina,Highway Safety Research Center, 1996).

Grade-separated crossings are most efficient in areas where pedestrian attractions such as shopping
centers, large schools,recreational facilities, parking garages,and other activity centers are separated
from pedestrian generators by highvolume and/or high-speed arterial streets.

Well-designed grade-separated crossings minimize slopes,feel open and safe,and are well lit. Minimizing
the slope of a grade-separated crossing is often difficult because a significant rise,generally from 4.3 to
5.5 m (14 to 18 ft),must be accommodated. Inaccessible grade-separated crossings should not be
constructed. In some situations, elevators can be installed to accommodate people with mobility
impairments.

Underpasses might invite crime if insufficiently lit and seldomly traveled.Underpasses can also be more
expensive to install than other pedestrian facilities because a tunnel must be dug and utility lines
relocated. Tunnels are more inviting to use when they are brightened with skylights or artificial lighting
and are wide and high enough to feel open and airy (ibid.).
4.4.11 Roadway Design

Sidewalk accessibility is intimately affected by the design of roads. Factors affecting roadway safety and
accessibility for pedestrians include sight distance, design speed, location, cross-slope, grade, and the
functional class of the road.Although some States have their own guidelines, most roadway designers rely
on the AASHTO Green Book for street development specifications. The AASHTO Green Book recognizes
several general factors as important to the functionality of public rights-of-way, including the grade of the
road, cross-slopes, traffic control devices, curbs, drainage, the road crown, and roadway width (Table 4-
1).

Table 4-1:Grade, Cross-Slope, and Curb Height Guidelines by Functional Class of Roadway (based on
information contained in AASHTO, 1995)

Maximum Grade(%)¹ Cross- Curb Height

Road Type Sidewalk Coverage
Level/Rolling/Mountain Slope3(%) (mm)

Consistent with terrain Commercial both sides Residential

Urban local 1.5–6.04 100–225
<15.0/<8.02 at least one side

Rural local 8.0/11.0/16.0 1.5–6.04 n/a n/a5

Urban
9.0/12.0/14.0 1.5–3.0 150–225 Same as Urban local
collector

Rural collector 7.0/10.0/12.0 1.5–3.0 n/a n/a5

Urban arterial 8.0/9.0/11.0 1.5–3.0 150–225 n/a5

Rural arterial 5.0/6.0/8.0 1.5–2.0 n/a n/a5

Recreational 8.0/12.0/18.0 n/a n/a n/a5

Chart does not include figures for freeways or divided arterials, which are not designed for pedestrians
and are not built with sidewalks.

1
The lower the maximum speed permitted on the road, the steeper the grade is permitted to be. The numbers listed in the
chart represent the lowest road speeds indicated in the AASHTO Green Book.

2
Residential/commercial or industrial.

3
The numbers listed in the chart indicate what the cross-slope should generally be for proper drainage.

4
Cross-slopes ranging from 3.0 to 6.0 percent should be used only for low surface types such as gravel, loose earth, and
crushed stone.

5
Sidewalks are still needed, even though the AASHTO Green Book does not specify guidelines for sidewalk coverage along
this road.

The functionality of a roadway should be balanced with the needs of pedestrians.Too often, roadway
design prioritizes the needs of motorists, and pedestrians are put at risk. Pedestrians would be well
accommodated if they received the same design considerations as drivers. When a sidewalk is included
along a roadway, it must be accessible according to the ADA regulations. To accomplish this
task,roadway designers must understand how roadway designs impact pedestrians and prioritize
accessible road development.
The manner in which roads are maintained also impacts pedestrians. Asphalt, an economical and durable
material, is used to pave most roads. In the past, repairing damage to asphalt roads typically entailed
overlaying the existing pavement with more asphalt. Over time, the asphalt layers build up the roadway
crown and can create steep slopes on either side of the centerline. These slopes can be difficult for
crossing pedestrians to negotiate (Figure 4-50) and create rapidly changing grades at curb ramps.

Figure 4-50: When roads are not milled, layers of asphalt build up and make the crossing difficult for
wheelchair users and others.

Figure 4-51: Milling roads from gutter to gutter prevents rapidly changing grades and makes intersections
easier for wheelchair users to negotiate.

Because used asphalt can now be recycled, it is currently more common for roads to be milled before
they are resurfaced.To improve accessibility, roads should always be milled before being resurfaced.The
same amount of asphalt to be added to a road should be milled away prior to any resurfacing project.
Milling should be completed from gutter to gutter to avoid crowning (Figure 4-51).In addition, because the
US DOJ has indicated that "resurfacing beyond normal maintenance is an alteration,"accessibility
improvements such as curb ramp installations must also be incorporated into road resurfacing projects
(US DOJ, 1994).

4.4.12 Drainage

Sidewalks and sidewalk elements, such as curb ramps and driveway crossings, must be designed to
provide efficient drainage as well as good access. Sidewalks provide the main conduit for draining the
walking surface, adjacent properties, and, in some cases, the roadway. Sidewalks with poor drainage can
accumulate precipitation that is not only a nuisance but might impede access or endanger the health,
safety, and welfare of all pedestrians. For example,poorly drained sidewalks in cold climates can freeze
over with ice and cause a hazard for pedestrians. Poorly drained sidewalks also permit the accumulation
of silt and debris, further impeding access.The AASHTO Green Book, adopted by most States, provides
slope ranges based on street type (Table 4-1).

Local topography and weather conditions also affect how steeply sidewalks, gutters,and roads should be
sloped to provide adequate drainage. According to the AASHTO Green Book, a cross-slope between 1.5
to 2.0 percent provides effective drainage on paved surfaces in most weather conditions (AASHTO,
1995).

Gutters are generally sloped more steeply than the roadway to increase runoff velocity. Concrete gutters
are smoother,offer less resistance to runoff, and are more water-resistant than asphalt, but they are also
more expensive to install.According to the AASHTO Green Book,gutters should have "a cross-slope of 5
to 8 percent to increase the hydraulic capacity of the gutter section" (AASHTO,1995). ADAAG specifies a
5 percent maximum slope at gutters (ADAAG,U.S. Access Board, 1991). This provision helps prevent
wheelchair users from hitting their footrests on the ramp or gutter and potentially being thrown forward out
of their wheelchairs. Section 4.3.1 contains additional information on rate of change of grade and gutter
design.

A wider gutter can be used to drain larger volumes of water without increasing the slope experienced by
curb ramp users.However, widening the gutter might require the purchase of additional rightof-way.
According to the AASHTO Green Book, gutters formed in combination with curbs should range from 0.3
m to 1.8 m (12 in to 71 in) wide (AASHTO, 1995).

Barrier curbs are higher than other types of curbs to discourage vehicles from leaving the roadway
(AASHTO, 1995).The height and more perpendicular face of barrier curbs also help sidewalks from being
inundated in areas prone to flooding.High curbs can also cause curb ramps to be longer and occupy more
sidewalk or street space. These restrictions make it more difficult to install accessible ramps on narrower
sidewalks.

Storm drains and catch basins are normally placed where they will intercept surface water runoff.
Installing a curb ramp at a point of strategic runoff interception can compromise effective drainage.
Regrading the section of road or curb ramp location to alter drainage patterns can resolve some situations
in which drainage concerns conflict with accessibility requirements.Ideally, inlets should be placed uphill
of crossings or curb ramps to drain water before it can puddle where pedestrians are crossing. In
locations with heavy rainfall,more frequent drainage inlets, more strategic placement of inlets, and basin
pickups will also reduce the frequency of puddles.

4.4.13 Building Design

Newly constructed buildings are required to be accessible under Titles II and III of the ADA. Building
entrances must be at grade with the sidewalk or provide accessible ramps to bridge elevation changes
between the building and the street. In some existing facilities, a significant elevation difference exists
between the street and the finished floor elevation (FFE) of the building. Inaccessible building entrances
with stairs or sidewalks with significant cross-slopes are often the result (Figures 4-52 and 4-53).

Figure 4-52: Stairs bridging low street elevation and high finished-floor elevation prevent wheelchair
access into the building.
Figure 4-53: Steep cross-slopes bridging low street elevation and high finished-floor elevation make the
sidewalk difficult for wheelchair users to travel across.

Factors influencing the FFE of a building can include zoning ordinances, building codes, and conditions
such as geologic formations, topography, and the hydrologic makeup of an area. The requirements of
other agencies, including the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA),the Army Corps of
Engineers, and the Federal Aviation Administration, as well as wetland laws, can also influence the FFE
of buildings in a given region. For example, FEMA requires communities located within flood plains to
elevate buildings above expected water rise levels. Such safety recommendations are commonly included
in local building codes. Insurance companies might demand higher FFEs if coverage for flood damage is
desired.

When sidewalk design is not given sufficient emphasis by transportation planning and review processes,
sidewalk designers are left to bridge the gap between building and street elevations.Creative solutions
include providing a level area and sloping the edge of the path,or raising the curb to level the sidewalk
(Figures 4-54 and 4–55).

Figure 4-54: A level area at least 0.915 m (36 in) wide improves access when there is a low street
elevation and high finishedfloor elevation.
Figure 4-55: A higher curb provides a level pathway but might increase the slope of curb ramps if the
sidewalk is narrow.

Road, sidewalk, and building designers should coordinate their efforts to ensure that accessible sidewalks
are developed in new construction and alterations.Good review processes, including a variety of interest
groups, can ensure that construction plans for accessible sidewalks are implemented.

Transportation agencies differ greatly in the degree to which they address pedestrian facilities. Some
areas permit developers to exclude sidewalk plans from the review of the overall construction plan and
create inaccessible pathways and noncompliant buildings, while others make consideration of sidewalk
plans mandatory. The disparity in the types of requirements builders and developers must meet was
illustrated in a 1995 National Association of Home Builders (NAHB) survey. The survey revealed that,
while 94 percent of builders and developers had to obtain building permits, only 36 percent were required
to undergo plan checking, and only 19 percent were required to design sidewalks more than 1.220 m (48
in) wide (NAHB, 1995).

4.4.14 Maintenance

Sidewalks are prone to damage caused by environmental conditions. Maintaining sidewalk elements in
good condition is an essential part of providing access to public rights-of-way. Sidewalks in poor repair
can limit access and threaten the health and safety of pedestrians. If sidewalks are in poor condition or
nonexistent, pedestrians are forced to travel in the street.
A public information program by the Campaign to Make America Walkable indicated that 3 of the top 10
most frequently cited roadway safety and sidewalk design problems were the following maintenance
issues (The Campaign to Make America Walkable,1997):

1. Missing sections of sidewalk,especially on key walking routes

2. Bad sidewalk surfaces, i.e., uneven or broken concrete or uplifted slabs over tree roots
3. Bad sidewalk maintenance, i.e.,overhanging bushes or trees or unshoveled snow on sidewalks

Maintenance problems are usually identified by pedestrians who report the location to the municipal
authorities.Identification of locations requiring maintenance may be done in conjunction with a city's
accessibility improvement program. Effective maintenance programs are quick to identify conditions that
can impede access and respond with repairs.Some cities survey and repair all sidewalks in regular
cycles. Other cities make or enforce repairs only if a complaint is filed. Cities also might have pavement
management programs and personnel devoted entirely to inspecting and repairing damaged access
routes. Assessing sidewalks for accessibility should be an integral part of maintenance survey programs.

Sidewalk inspectors typically look for conditions that are likely to inhibit access or cause pedestrians to
injure themselves.The following list of common sidewalk maintenance problems was generated from
promotional material created for home owners by the Bureau of Maintenance in the City of Portland,
Oregon (1996) and the Division of Engineering for the Lexington–Fayette County Urban Government
(1993):

 Step separation - a vertical displacement of 13 mm (0.5 in) or greater at any point on the walkway
that could cause pedestrians to trip, lock up the wheels of a wheelchair, or prevent the wheels of
a wheelchair from rolling smoothly
 Badly cracked concrete — holes and rough spots ranging from hairline cracks to indentations
wider than 25 mm (1 in)
 Spalled areas — fragments of concrete or other building material detached from larger structures;
also losses of aggregate and cement leaving holes or depressions greater than 50 mm x 50 mm
(2 in x 2 in) in the sidewalk
 Settled areas that trap water — sidewalk panels with depressions, reverse cross-slopes, or other
indentations that cause the sidewalk path to be lower than the curb; these depressions cause silt
and water to settle on the walkway path and might require replacement.
 Tree root damage — roots from trees growing in adjacent landscaping that cause the walkway
surface to buckle and crack, impeding access
 Vegetation overgrowth — ground cover, trees, or shrubs on properties or setbacks adjacent to
the sidewalk that have not been pruned. Overgrown vegetation can encroach onto the walkway
and pose obstacles, inhibiting pedestrian access.
 Obstacles — objects located on the sidewalk, in setbacks, or on properties adjacent to the
sidewalk that obstruct passage space. Obstacles commonly include trash receptacles, parked
cars, and private mailboxes.
 Sidewalks of materials other than specified by the municipality — the use of materials other than
those specified by the municipality in the construction of sidewalks and driveway aprons.
Materials not approved for sidewalk construction can erode quickly, cause excessive slippage, or
be inappropriate to the atmosphere of a particular area.
 Driveway flares — that do not comply with standard criteria set by the municipality
 Any safety issue — that a pedestrian or sidewalk inspector believes merits attention

Although sidewalks are elements of the public right-of-way, many city charters assign the owner of the
adjacent property with responsibility for sidewalk upkeep. It is common for city charters to specify that the
city cannot be held liable for any accident or injury due to sidewalk conditions.

Home owners are commonly allowed to decide whether to hire a contractor, perform repairs on their own,
or have the city do the repair. The home owners' association in some neighborhoods address right-of-way
maintenance to minimize the cost to individual members. Some cities subsidize property owners for
repairing sidewalks. Local laws also might dictate whether a home owner must engage a professional
contractor to undertake sidewalk repair. If municipal inspectors review and approve sidewalk repairs, the
finished sidewalks are more likely to meet pedestrian access needs.

4.4.15 Signs

Most agencies rely on the MUTCD for sign guidelines. For font recommendations, the MUTCD references
the Standard Alphabets for Highway Signs and Pavement Markings, which permits a series of six letter
types on signs. Each letter type features a different stroke width-to-height ratio (Office of Traffic
Operations, FHWA, 1982). Various sign shapes, colors, and lettering are used for each type of sign
(warning, street, regulatory, etc.) (US DOT, 1988). Braille and raised lettering are not addressed in the
MUTCD.

ADAAG Section 4.30 also provides guidelines for signage. ADAAG specifications are targeted at indoor
facilities and might not be applicable to all outdoor spaces. According to ADAAG, "letters and numbers on
signs shall have a width-to-height ratio between 3:5 and 1:1 and a stroke width-to-height ratio between
1:5 and 1:10" (ADAAG, U.S. Access Board, 1991). MUTCD requirements for size and stroke meet and
might even exceed ADAAG specifications. ADAAG Section 4.30 also provides guidelines for character
height, raised and brailled characters and pictorial symbol signs, finish and contrast, mounting location
and height, and symbols of accessibility.

Pedestrian signs should not be placed in locations where they obstruct the minimum clearance width or
protrude into the pathway.

The majority of signs in the public right-of-way are directed at the motorist. Although these signs often
affect pedestrians, they are usually not intended for or positioned to be seen by sidewalk users. For
example, the street name signs on many large arterials are hung in the center of the intersection. This
location is essentially invisible to pedestrians traveling along the sidewalk. Pedestrians might even be put
in danger because important safety information, such as yield signage, is not easily visible.

Figure 4-56: Traffic sign indicating upcoming steep grade (US DOT, 1988).

Figure 4-57: Pedestrian sign indicating upcoming steep grade.1

Targeting more signs toward pedestrians would improve safety and permit them to identify routes
requiring the least effort for travel. Warning signs similar to standard traffic warning signs (Figure 4-56)
would provide information on sidewalk characteristics such as steep grades (Figure 4–57). To date, these
types of signs have not been introduced into the MUTCD. Inclusion in this report does not constitute
FHWA endorsement. Pedestrian-oriented signage containing access information for trails has been
developed as part of the Universal Trail Assessment Process (UTAP) (see Sections 5.1 and 5.4.9).
Objective signage provides users with reliable information they can use to make informed choices about
their travel routes. In the sidewalk environment, signage should be supplemented with audible or tactile
information to be accessible to people with visual impairments.

4.5 Conclusion

Many factors work in concert to make sidewalks and sidewalk elements accessible. Although it is
important to make individual features accessible, such improvements will not be useful unless the
conditions of the sidewalk as a whole can be negotiated. Accessible sidewalks must be included as part
of all new construction and alterations. In addition, regular maintenance programs should be implemented
to keep existing routes safe and usable.

Table 4-2.1: Federal Accessibility Guidelines for Accessible Routes

Maximum
Maximum Maximum Maximum
Allowable
Grade with Allowable Minimum Allowable Minimum Allowable
Running
Handrails Running Clearance Vertical Vertical
Grade
and Level Cross- Width Change in Clearance(Overhead)
without
Landings Slope Level
Handrails

Source % % m % m mm m

ADA
Standards
for
Accessible 5.0 2 8.33 2 9.1 2.0 0.915³ 64 2.030
Design 1
(US DOJ,
1991)

UFAS (US 5.0 2 8.33 2 9.1 2.0 0.915³ 64 2.030

 DoD, et al.,
1984)

1
The ADA Standards for Accessible Design are identical in content to ADAAG Sections 1-10. However, the Design
Standards are enforceable by the U.S. Department of Justice.

2
The ADA Standards for Accessible Design require people to use the least slope possible on accessible routes.

3
Minimum clearance width may be reduced to 0.815 m (32 in) at an obstruction for a maximum length of 0.610 m (24 in).

4
Changes in level between 6 mm (.25 in) and 13 mm (.5 in) are permitted if beveled with a maximum slope of 50 percent.

Table 4-2.2: ADAAG-Proposed Section 14 (1994) Accessibility Guidelines for Public Rights-of-Way

Maximum Maximum
Maximum Maximum
Allowable Grade
Allowable Minimum Allowable Minimum Allowable
Running with
Running Clearance Vertical Vertical
Grade Handrails
Cross- Width Change in Clearance(Overhead)
without and Level
Slope Level
Handrails Landings

Source % % m % m mm m

ADAAG-
proposed
Section 14
(1994)(U.S. n/a 1 n/a n/a 2.0 0.915 62 2.030
Access
Board,
1994b)

1
Sidewalk slopes may be consistent with the slope of the adjacent roadway.

2
Changes in level between 6 mm (.25 in) and 13 mm (.5 in) are permitted if beveled with a maximum slope of 50 percent.

Table 4-2.3: State Guidelines for Sidewalks

Maximum Maximum
Maximum Maximum
Allowable Grade
Allowable Minimum Allowable Minimum Allowable
Running with
Running Clearance Vertical Vertical
Grade Handrails
Cross- Width Change in Clearance(Overhead)
without and Level
Slope Level
Handrails Landings

Source % % m % m mm m

FL Ped. 5.0 n/a 1 n/a 2.0 1.220 n/a n/a

1
Planning and
Dgn.
Guidelines
(University of
NC Hwy.
Safety
 Research
Ctr., 1996)

Oregon
Pedestrian
5.0 8.33 9.1 2.0 1.0 n/a 2.1
Design
Guidelines

Architectural
Barriers Act
(Texas
Department
5.0 8.33 9.1 2.0 0.915 62 2.030
of Licensing
and
Regulation,
1997)

1
Florida directs people to the ADA for maximum grade requirements.

2
Changes in level between 6 mm (.25 in) and 13 mm (.5 in) are permitted if beveled with a maximum slope of 50 percent.

Table 4-2.4: Additional Recommendations for Sidewalks

Maximum Maximum
Maximum Maximum
Allowable Grade
Allowable Minimum Allowable Minimum Allowable
Running with
Running Clearance Vertical Vertical
Grade Handrails
Cross- Width Change in Clearance(Overhead)
without and Level
Slope Level
Handrails Landings

Source % % m % m mm m

Accessibility
for Elderly and
Handicapped
5.0 8.33 9.1 2.0 0.915 6¹ 2.030
Peds.
(Earnhart and
Simon, 1987)

ANSI A117.1-
1980 (ANSI, 5.0 8.33 9.1 2.0 0.915 6¹ 2.030
1980)

ANSI A117.1-
1992(Council
of American 5.0 8.33 9.1 2.1 0.915 6¹ 2.030
Building
Officials,1992)

Dgn. and
Safety of Ped.
Facilities (ITE
8.0 8.0 9.1 2.1 0.915 n/a n/a
Tech. Council
Comm. SA-5,
1998)
1
1 Changes in level between 6 mm (.25 in) and 13 mm (.5 in) are permitted if beveled with a maximum slope of 50 percent.

Table 4-3.1: Federal Accessibility Guidelines for Curb Ramps (CR)

Maximum Maximum Maximum Minimum Minimum

Slope of Curb Cross-Slope of Slope of Ramp Landing
Ramps Curb Ramps Flared Sides Width Length

Source % % % m m

ADA Standards for

Accessible Design ¹ 8.332, 3 2.0 10.04, 5 0.9156 0.915
(US DOJ, 1991)

UFAS (US DoD, et

8.332, 3 2.0 10.04, 5 0.9156 0.915
al., 1984)

1
The ADA Standards for Accessible Design are identical in content to ADAAG Sections 1–10. However, the Design
Standards are enforceable by the U.S. Department of Justice.

2
The ADA Standards for Accessible Design require people to use the least slope possible on curb ramps that are part of
accessible routes.

3
If space prohibits a slope less than 8.33%, curb ramps to be constructed on existing sites may have a slope of 8.33% to
10% with a maximum rise of 150 mm (6 in) or a slope of 10% to 12.5% with a maximum rise of 75 mm (3 in).

4
The flare guidelines do not apply if the curb ramp is located where a pedestrian does not have to walk across the ramp or if
the flared sides are protected by handrails or guardrails.

5
If the landing is less than 1.220 m long, the slope of the flared sides must not exceed 8.33%.

6
Exclusive of flared sides.

Table 4-3.2: ADAAG-Proposed Section 14 (1994) Accessibility Guidelines for Curb Ramps (CR)

Maximum Maximum Maximum Minimum Minimum

Slope of Curb Cross-Slope of Slope of Ramp Landing
Ramps Curb Ramps Flared Sides Width Length

Source % % % m m

ADAAG-Proposed
Section 14 (1994)
8.331, 2 2.0 10.03 0.9154 0.9155
(U.S. Access Board,
1994b)

1
The U.S. Access Board recommends using the least slope possible.

2
The slope of a parallel curb ramp should not exceed 8.33%, but is not expected to exceed 2.440 m in length.

3
The flare guidelines do not apply if the curb ramp is located where a pedestrian does not have to walk across the ramp or if
the flared sides are protected by handrails or guardrails.

4
Exclusive of flared sides.
5
The minimum allowable landing length is 0.915 m for parallel curb ramps and 1.220 m for perpendicular curb ramps.

Table 4-3.3: State and City Guidelines for Curb Ramps (CR)

Maximum
Maximum Maximum Minimum Minimum
Cross-Slope
Slope of Slope of Ramp Landing
of Curb
Curb Ramps Flared Sides Width Length
Ramps

Source % % % m m

FL Ped. Planning and

Dgn. Guidelines
(University of NC 8.33 n/a 8.331 1.0 1.220
Hwy.Safety Research
Ctr., 1996)

Ped. Compatibility
Planning and Dgn.
8.33² 2.0² 10.01 1.220 1.220
Guidelines (NJ DOT,
1996)

Ped. Dgn. Guide (City of

8.33 2.0 n/a 0.915 1.220
Portland, 1997)

Architectural Barriers Act

(Texas Department of
8.332, 3 2.0 10.01, 4 0.9155 0.915
Licensing and
Regulation, 1997)

1
The flare guidelines do not apply if the curb ramp is located where a pedestrian does not have to walk across the ramp or if
the flared sides are protected by handrails or guardrails.

2
The least possible slope should be used.

3
If space prohibits a slope less than 8.33%, curb ramps to be constructed on existing sites may have a slope of 8.33 to 10%
with a maximum rise of 150 mm (6 in) or a slope of 10 to 12.5% with a maximum rise of 75 mm (3 in).

4
If the landing is less than 1.220 m long, the slope of the flared sides must not exceed 8.33%.

5
Exclusive of flared sides.

Table 4-3.4: Additional Recommendations for Curb Ramps (CR)

Maximum
Maximum Maximum Minimum Minimum
Cross-Slope
Slope of Slope of Ramp Landing
of Curb
Curb Ramps Flared Sides Width Length
Ramps

Source % % % m m

Accessibility for Elderly

and Handicapped Peds.
8.331 n/a 10.02, 3 0.915 n/a
(Earnhart and Simon,
1987)
 ANSI A117.1-1980 (ANSI,
8.331, 4 2.0 10.02 0.9155 0.915
1980)

ANSI A117.1-1992
(Council of American 8.331, 4 2.1 10.02 0.9155 0.915
Building Officials, 1992)

Dgn. and Safety of Ped.

Fac. (ITE Tech Council 8.33 n/a 10.0 0.915 n/a
Comm SA-5, 1998)

Planning Dgn. and

Maintenance of Ped.
8.331 n/a 10.02, 3 0.9156 n/a
Facilities (Bowman, Fruin,
and Zegeer, 1989)

1
If space prohibits a slope less than 8.33%, curb ramps to be constructed on existing sites may have a slope of 8.33 to 10%
with a maximum rise of 150 mm (6 in) or a slope of 10% to 12.5% with a maximum rise of 75 mm (3 in).

2
The flare guidelines to not apply if the curb ramp is located where a pedestrian does not have to walk across the ramp or if
the flared sides are protected by handrails or guardrails.

3
If the landing is less than 1.220 m long, the slope of the flared sides must not exceed 8.33%.

4
The least possible slope should be used.

5
Exclusive of flared sides.

6
In areas with snow removal, 1.220 m is the minimum recommended ramp width.