Definition of insulator:

Which material that can’t carry out any electricity those material are called insulator.

For example: Wood, Rubber.

Definition of conductor:
Which material that can carry electricity those material are called conductor.

For example: Copper, Feroues.

Definition of semiconductor:
Semiconductor are special class of elements having a conductivity between that of a good
conductor and that of an insulator.

Semiconductor materials are two kinds :-

1: Single crystal ------Ge,Si

2: Compound crystal----------- Geas,Cds

The most three important semiconductor are Ge,Si and Geas.

Intrinsic Semiconductor:
Intrinsic material are whose need n’t to mixed impure material-------( Si , Ge )
Extrinsic Semiconductor:
This is the material need to mixed impure material (amount is one from one crore) and
create huge amount of electron is called extrinsic material.

This is seen in periodic table in three series and five series.

This material are two kinds-----------

(p-type and n-type)

Doping:
To mixed impure material in pure semiconductor for increase conductivity in this process is
called doping.

N-type semiconductor:
An n-type material is created by introducing impurity element that have five valence
electron such as Sb,as,ph.

If we mixed in five valence electron (as,sb) in theGe or Si . There are no change in crystal . In
five valence electron the fore are combined in Ge or Si and made a cavelant bond.But one
extra electron can remain.And this valence electron can observe some energy and increse
the conductivity in semiconductor.This valence electron are called donor electron.Here
majority carrier is electron and minority carrier is hole.

P-type material:
The p-type material is formed by dopping a pure germanium or silicon crystal with impurity
atoms having three valence electron.

The effect of one of those elements boron on a base of silicon is indicated.

There is niw insufficient number of electrons to complete the covelent bonds of the newly
formed lattice.The resulting nalency is called a hole and is represented by a small circle of
plus sign.Indecating resulting vacancy will readily accept a free electron.

The diffused impurities with three valence electron are called acceptor atoms.

Now the calculation is-----------------

ρ=1

Negative temperature coefficient:

Doid:
P-N junction:
If we attached a p- type semiconductor and a n-type semiconductor is called p-n junction. It
is made from two semiconductor so it’s called semiconductor diod .

This junction current flow in one direction so it is called semiconductor rectifier.

In p-type semiconductor there held a huge number of hole and few number of electron. The
number of hole is same the negative acceptor atom in p-type semiconductor.
In n-type semiconductor there can hold huge number of free electron and few number of
hole. The number of free electron is same the number of crystal include positive donor
atom.

In p-n junction the hole of p-type want to go n-type zone and the free electron of n-type
want to go p-type zone and can combine neutral phase.

P-type hole inter the n-type and give positive acceptor ions.

N-type hole inter the p-type and given negative donor ions.

So, p-type remain some positive and n-type remain some negative.

N-type positive charge oppose p-type hole and p-type negative charge oppose n-type
electron. So, in junction create a potential wall that create potential barrier. Out of this zone
they can remain neutral.

In potential barrier place n-zones positive ions and p-zone negative showen. In this place is
called deplation layer.

Forward bias:
A forward bias or “on” condition is established by applying the positive potential to the p-
type material and the negative potential to the n-type material.

In this condition the positive end of cell attract electron the direction of p-type and the
negative and attracted hole the direction of n-type material.

As a result electron can cross junction from n-type to p-type and hole can cross junction
from p-type to n-type.

Final condition is electron cross the junction from n-type material and fill up the hole.

In this fluidity is called forward current. And this joint is called forward bias.

Reverse bias:
If an extra potential of V volt is applied across the p-n junction such that the positive
terminal is connected to the n-type material and the negative terminal is connected to the p-
type material is called reverse bias.

The number of uncovered positive ions in the deplation region of the n-type material will
increase due to the large number of free electron drawn to the positive potential of the
applied voltage.

For the similar reasion the number of the uncovered negative ions will increase in the p-type
material.
The net effect, therefore is a widening of the deplation region. This widening of the
deplation region will establish too great a barrier for the majority carrier to overcome
effectly reducing the majority carrier flow to zero.

The number of minority carriers however enter the deplation region will not change,
resulting the minority carrier flow same magnitude of no applied voltage.

The current that exist under reverse bias condition is called the reverse saturation current
and is called the reverse saturation current and is denoted by I s.

Anode :
Cathode:
PRV or PIV:
The maximum reverse bias potential that can be applied before entering the zeneor region
is called the peak inverse(PIV) or peak reverse voltage(PRV).

Avalance voltage:
The increase of knee voltage at the zenith point to overcome this voltage can be destroy is
called avalance voltage.

D.C or static resistance:

The application of dc voltage to a circuit containing a semiconductor diod will result in an
operating point on the characteristic curve that will not change with time .The resistance of
the diod at the operating point can be found simply by finding the corresponding V D and ID.

R D=VD/ID.

The resistance level in the reverse bias region will naturally be quite high.

In generall ,therefore the higher the current through a diod, the lower is the dc resistance
level.

A.C or Dynamic resistance:

The application of AC voltage to a circuit containing a semiconductor diod will result in an
instaneous operating point on the characteristic curve that will change with time.

Curve change in up to down.

In general therefore the lower the Q point of operation the higher is the ac resistance.

Average AC Resistance:
By definition the resistance determined by a straight line drawn between the two
intersection by the maximum and minimum values of input voltage is called average AC
resistance.

As with the dc and ac resistance levels the lower level of current used to determined the
average resistance level.

Transmission or Depletion region capacitance (CT):

In the reverse bias region there is a depletion region (free carrier) that behaves essentially
like an insulator between the layers of opposite charge. Since the depletion width will
increase with increased reverse bias potential the resulting transmission capacitance will
decrease.

In the reverse bias region we have the transmission or depletion region capacitance (C T)

Diffusion or storage capacitance (CD):

In the forward bias region it is overshadowed by a capacitance effect directly dependent on
the rate at which change is injected onto the region just outside the depletion region. The
result is that increased levels of current will result in increased levels of diffusion
capacitance.

Reverse recovery time:

Half wave rectifier:
A half wave rectifier is composed of a single diode that connects an AC source to aload. In
figure the load is represented by a resistor. The diode conducts on AC voltage only when its
anode is positive with respect to the cathode . The output has therefore only a positive
component with an average value.

Vave=

The output peak voltage is the AC source minus the voltage drope of the diode, that in most
cases can be neglected.

Full wave rectifier:

In half wave rectifier, half of the power provided by the source is not used.To solve this
problem, we have to use full wave rectifiers. The minimum full-wave rectifier is composed of
two diodes, but it requires a center tapped transformer.
The AC current , according to its direction, flow either in the top or in the bottom part of the
bridge in each half-cycle. In the output voltage we will have a component for both negative
and positive parts of the input voltage . In both cases the current passes through two
forward –biased diodes in series, what produce a voltage drop of 1.4v.

The average voltage of a full-wave rectifier is: