Definition :

A strain gauge is a device used to measure the strain on a free surface of a structure. Strain gages are
the preeminent tool in stress analysis. Strain gauges of all types are essentially employed to measure the
linear deformation over a given gauge length. The sense the change in length, Magnify and indicate it in
some other form. Strain Gauge is invented by Edward E Simmons and Arthur C Ruge in the year 1938.
2. Classification of Strain Gauges
Depending up on the magnification system, the strain gauges are broadly classified as under,
a. Mechanical strain gauges
b. Electrical strain gauges
c. Optical strain gauges
d. Pneumatic strain gauges
e. Acoustical strain gauges
2.1 Mechanical strain gauges
Mechanical strain gauges are also known as Extensometers used to measure static or gradually
varying load conditions. These gauges are usually provided with two knife edges which are clamped
firmly in contact with the test component by means of a clamping spring at a specific distance of gauge
length. When the specimen under testing is strained the knife edges undergoes displacement,
this displacement is amplified by a mechanical linkages and the strain is displaced on a calibrated scale.
Types of Mechanical strain gauges
2.1.1 Berry Strain gauge
These strain gauges uses a lever magnification with dial indicator to show magnified motion. It consists of
one rigid frame and two conically pointed contact pointers. One pointer is rigidly fixed to the frame while
the other is pivoted at a point on the frame. The displacement in the lever is magnified and indicated in
the dial indicator.

2.1.2 Huggenbeger Extensometer

This extensometer has a set of compound levers which are relatively small in size and high magnification
factor. These gauges are highly accurate. The movable knife edge rotates the lever at lower pivot, the
lever in turn rotates the indicator pointer at upper pivot point with the help of a link.
Magnification ratio =

l1 l2
a1 a2

2.1.3 Johansson Extensometer

These extensometers uses tension tape or twisted metal strip between two knife edges. Half of the strip
is twisted to one direction and remaining half is twisted to other direction and a pointer is fixed at the
center of the strip. On application of load, displacement in the movable knife edge takes place with
high amplification due to stretching of twisted metal strip.

2.1.4 Scratch Guage:

The scratch gauge is a self-contained compact device providing a permanent record of

displacement over a period of time. In this gauge

Figure: Scratch gauge (Prewitt Associates, USA)

the relative displacement between two stainless steel base planets L and S secured to the test
component causes a scriber D to scratch sharply the actual component deformation on a small
brass (targer, T). The target is held in position by two tiny rollers and two stainless steel
brushes. The free end of the long driver brush B engages a peripheral groove of the target. It is
also guided in a bent tube BT. When a tensile deformation is removed or a compressive
deformation is produced, the plates L and S move towards each other. This causes the driver
brush B to rotate the circular target by a small amount. However during a tensile deformation
the driver brush B just slides back in the target groove without rotating it. Thus tensile
movements scribe a line parallel to the gauge axis (Fig. 16.5). Compressive movements and
removal of tensile strain scribe a line at approximately 45 o to the gauge axis. The height h of
the recorded data is the product of the strain and gauge length. The traces on the target are
evaluated by viewing them with a microscope having a calibrated eye-piece scale. The
minimum strain that a scratch gauge can sense is about 100 micro strain. The gauge lengths of
these gauges are rather large.

Figure: Scratch gauge record

The scratch gauge is compact in size and weighs less than 30 g. It can be attached to
almost any surface with clamps or screws or adhesive bonding. It can measure stresses under
all types of loading-static, fatigue or shock. It can be used to record stresses in all types of
environments- room and elevated temperatures, under water, under radiation, etc.

2.2 Optical strain gauges

The optical strain gauges are used to measure elongation as well as deflection, following are the two type
of optical strain gauges,
1. Mechanical - optical SG:
a. Martens optical gauge
b. Tuckerman Optical Gauge
2. Photoelastic SG
2.2.1. Martens optical gauge:
These optical stain gauges employs variety of mirror systems to obtain optical magnification.
The well known optical system used in a strain gauge on a single mirror system is martens optical gauge.
The pivoted knife edge carries a mirror and the other end of this arm is fastened to specimen as the
specimen elongates the measuring knife edge will rotate about its point there by tilting the mirror. The
Reflection of the illuminated scale in this mirror is viewed through the telescope.

2.2.2 Tuckerman Optical Gauge:

In this instrument, the relative rotation between the fixed mirror and the movable mirror is
measured with autocollimator. The autocollimator consists of a lamp source to produce parallel beam of
rays
and
a
scale
to
measure
the
deflection
of
the
reflected
ray.
A tungsten carbide rocker (lozenge) acts as a moving knife; one face of this lozenge is polished to act as
a mirror.If the specimen deforms, rotates the lozenge which in turn deflects the incident ray back to the
reticule. Actually three images are visible on the reticule one gives the measurement of strain and other
two helping alignment of the gauge. The sensitivity of the gauge is 2 micro strains and this gauge is
available with a wide range of gauge length of 6mm. it can measure both static and dynamic strains and
cyclic strains up to 180 Hz.

B) Photoelastic Strain Ganges

A Photoelastic Strain Gauges (Fig. 10.8) essentially consists of: (i) a strip of plastic with
a reflective backing containing a frozen-in fringe pattern of equally spaced fringes, (ii) a
sandwich sheet of a Polaroid and a quarter-wave plate covering the plastic strip, and (iii) a
graduated scale for measurement. This gauge when bonded to a test component will indicate
visually and quantitatively the presence of strain through the movement of the residual fringe
pattern. Usually a principle strain difference of 1000 microstrain causes one fringe to move a
distance equal to the fringe spacing. If one can read the fringe position to one-twentieth of the
fringe spacing, a sensitivity of 50 microstrain can be obtained.

Photoelastic strain gauge

Electrical Strain guage:
The deformation or strains measured using the electrical parameters
Types of Electrical SG are
1. Electrical resistance SG
2. Inductance SG
3. Capacitance SG

Electrical resistance strain gauge:

In electrical resistance strain gauge the displacement or strain is measured as a function of change in
resistance
produced
by
the
displacement
in
the
gauging
circuit.
When the conductor is stretched, its length will increase and area of cross section will decrease this
will result in change in resistance.

l
A

Resistance,
Where, is the resistivity of the material
l is the length of the conductor
A is the c/s area of the conductor
Change in resistance per unit strain is defined as Gauge Factor. Gauge factor indicates the sensitivity of
the strain gauge.

iii)
iv)

Types of electrical resistance strain gauges

i) Unbonded gauges:
Non-metallic
Metallic
ii) Bonded gauges
Non-metallic
Metallic
Wire type
Foil type.
Weldable gauges.
Piezoresistive gauges
1. a) Unbonded Non -Metallic Gauges.
The unbonded non metallic gauge is a mechanically actuated gauge that contains a resistance
element so arranged that when one part of the gauge is displaced with respect to another there is
developed a change in pressure on the measuring element of the gauge. This change in pressure
changes the resistance of the element which may be recorded by electrical means. A gauge of this type
was developed in 1923 and 1924 by McCollum and Peters and is shown in Fig. This gauge is composed
of a series of carbon plates arranged in a stack. The stack is so adjusted that a displacement of one
parts of the gauge relative to another changes the pressure, on the stack of plates. When the strain is
applied in the structure to which the gauge is attached, the change in length is communicated to the
carbon-plate stack. This change in length requires a change in pressure in the stack, and the resistance
of the stack changes.
With an increase in pressure, the areas of contact between the plates are enlarged and new
areas come into contact, thus decreasing the resistance of the element. If the pressure is released, the
areas of contact are reduced, and some of the areas lose contact, thus increasing the resistance of the
element. If the pressure becomes excessive, so that the elastic limit of the carbon in the gauges is
exceeded or the carbon is even crushed, or if the plates are allowed to shift in the lateral direction with
respect to each other, the results become erratic. Besides these difficulties, there is a further defect of
mechanical friction and hystertsis in the mechanical parts of the gauge.

Unbonded non-metallic strain gauge

Gauge of this kind have been used to determine displacements, loads and strains in flexible
cables, airplanes, bridges, vibrating members, dynamometers and pressure gauges. However, with the
advancement of metallic gauges the usefulness of these type of gauges has reduced materially.
1. b) Unbonded Metallic SG:
The principle of the unbonded-metallic gauges is based on the change in electrical resistance of a
metallic wire due to the change in tension of the wire. The first device of this kind was designed by
Carlson and Eaton in 1930. This gauge consists of a wire stretched between two points in an insulating
medium such as air. The wires may be made of various copper, nickel, chrome nickle or nickle iron alloys.
In fig the element is connected via a rod to diaphragm which is used for sensing the pressure. The wires
are tensioned to avoid buckling when they experience the compressive force. The unbonded meter wire
gauges used almost exclusively in transducer application employ preloaded resistance wire connected in
Wheatstone bridge as shown in fig.
At initial preload the strain and resistance of the four arms are nominally equal with the result the
output voltage of the bridge is equal to zero. Application of pressure produces a small displacement, the
displacement increases a tension in two wires and decreases it in the other two thereby increase the
resistance of two wires which are in tension and decreasing the resistance of the remaining two wire. This
causes an unbalance of the bridge producing an output voltage which is proportional to the input
displacement and hence to the applied pressure.

2. (a) Bonded Non-Metallic Gauges.

A strain gauge using direct bonding of a non-metallic resistor element to a
material in which the strain is so to be measured was reported by Bloach in 1935.

In this gauge a carbon coating is applied directly to the surface of the structure in
which strain is to be measured. For metallic structures the surface is first coated
with a non-conducting material. If the underlying surface of such a coating is
stretched, the carbon particle would move apart, and the under-coating is
compressed, the particles would move closer together, and the resistance will
change. This resistance change can be interpreted in terms of strain.
Generally these types of gauges are made by impregnating carbon particles
in plastic sheets. These sheets are then cut into strips about 6 mm wide and 25
mm long. On each end of the strip a silver band is plated so that lead wires may be
attached (fig). The gauge is bonded directly to the surface to be strained with
common glue.

Bonded non-metallic strain gauge

These sensitivity and resistance of the gauge are affected by temperature
and humidity. This gauge is of rugged construction and can withstand rough
handling. However, the cross-sensitivity of the gauge is quite high.

2. (b) Bonded Metallic Gauges.

(i)
Bonded wire guage
A resistance wire strain gauge consists of a grid of fine resistance wire. The grid is cemented to
carrier which may be a thin sheet of paper bakelite or teflon. The wire is covered on top with a thin sheet
of material so as to prevent it from any mechanical damage. The carrier is bonded with an adhesive
material to the specimen which permits a good transfer of strain from carrier to grid of wires.

(ii)

Bonded foil Guage:

The foil type of stain gauge has a grid made from a very thin strain-sensitive foil (fig
d). The width of foil is very large as compared to the thickness so that the gauge
provides a much larger area for cementing the gauge. The gauge configuration is
obtained by printing the desired pattern on a sheet of foil with acid resistant ink and
subsequently etching away the unprotected metal. Another method of manufacture
involves precision punching of the gauges from a foil sheet. The foil types of
gauges have the following advantages over the wire type gauges.
1. The width of the foil at the end of each loop can be greatly increased to
reduce the sensitivity of the sensitivity of the gauge to transverse strains.
2. The cross-section of the gauge conductor is rectangular, resulting in the high
ratio of surface area to cross-section area. This increases heat dissipation
and avoids adhesion between the grid and the backing material.
3. The gauge factor is higher by 4 to 10 per cent that other gauges.
4. These gauges are easier to manufacture.
5. These gauges can be used to measure strain on curved surfaces.
6. These gauges are suitable for static and dynamic strain measurements.
7. They have very good fatigue properties.
8. Stress relaxation and hysterisis is very less in these gauges.

3. Weldable Strain gauge:

Weldable strain gauges are easy to install in minutes in any environment compared to bonded type strain
gauge. The weldable strain gauge consists of a strain sensitive element, the nickel Chromium or platinum
Tungsten, housed within a small diameter stainless steel tube. The strain element is insulated from the
tube with highly compacted ceramic insulation. This gauge is subsequenty spot welded to structure under
test and provides bonding to transfer the strain. The test specimen which is put into tension or
compression, the stress is transmitetd through the weld to mounting flange and in to strain tube. These
gauges can be used for static or dynamic applications.

4. Piezo-resistive strain gauges.

Crystals of silicon, germanium, quarts and Rochelle salt show a change in
resistance when deformed by applying pressure. This effect can be utilized to
measure strain. Such like gauges are called piezo-resistance strain gauges.