RATIFICATION PAGE
Complete report of Basic Biology entitle Eternity arranged by:
Name
Nurul Wahyuni Dewi
ID
1212441002
Class
ICP A Of Physics
Group
after checked by assistant and assistant coordinator, so this report was accepted.
Makassar, December
Assistant Coordinator
Assistant
M.Nur Qadri, S.Pd
Firdaus
ID : 091404183
Known By,
Responsible Lecturer
Drs.H.Hamka L. M.Si
NIP : 196212311987021005
2012
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
A. Background
In our life, every creature has ability to produce their clan. Of a kind and
organism degrade the same organism. The fact that children loo like with their
parent is one of example from endowment of nature
Transfer of nature of from a generation to generation named degradation of
nature of. There is also told as a result arise the new fenotife or varian in
population. Genotife have the character of down hill and be queathed to its clan.
influence Genotif do not always look its result. Cause very base on of its
environment. Genotife also represent the sususnan gene in individual. While
expression genotife named by fenotife. Fenotife is the nature of visible from
outside and represent the solidarity with the variation of that is clan own a
few/little difference from parent and its blood brother. Science learning about
hereditas and variation of genetica. Genetica unfold to us hit the genesis
variabilitas endowed in population. Process the sexual reproduction create the
new gene combination. New Genotife and of among genotife in its environment.
At biological branch there are number of comparison of genotife and fenotife
from del law and elementary of genotife of some nature of baka of at human
being. Each organism own the comparison of nature of different genotife and
fenotife. Device of block letters represent the dominant term while device of
lower case represent the nature of resesif. Dominant term used by because this
can defeat the expression of gene alelnya.Sehingga to know the number
comparison of[is nature of genotife and phenotife conducted by a perception
seenly distinguish the characteristic by her self and characteristic owned by
friend. For proving the comparison number genotife and phenotive from Mendel
Law and genotife basic of some eternity on human, so in this chance we do this
experiment.
B. Purpose
Providing comparison genotype and phenotype of the law and basic
Mendelian genotyping several immortal human nature.
C. Benefits
Student able to provide comparison genotype and pheotype of the law and
basic Mendelian genotyping several immortal human nature.
CHAPTER II
PREVIEW OF LITERATURE
Eternity (or forever) is endless time. It is often referenced in the context of
religion, in the concept of immortality, whereby death is conquered, and people may
live for an unlimited amount of time (cf. Heaven). The existence of God or gods is
said to endure eternally and sometimes also the natural cosmos, in respect to both past
and future. Aristotle established a distinction between actual infinity and a potentially
infinite count, for example, instead of saying that there are an infinity of primes,
Euclid prefers instead to say that there are more prime numbers than contained in any
given collection of prime numbers. According to Aristotle, a future span of time must
be a potential infinity, because another element can always be added to a series that is
inexhaustible: "For generally the infinite has this mode of existence: one thing is
always being taken after another, and each thing that is taken is always finite, but
always different" (Anonymousa,2012).
In 1866, Gregor Mendel, an Austrian monk and a plant breeder, published his
findings on the method and the mathematics of inheritance in garden pea plants. The
passing of traits to the next generation is called inheritance, or heredity. Mendel,
shown in Figure 10.7, was successful in sorting out the mystery of inheritance
because of the organism he chose for his studythe pea plant. Pea plants are easy to
grow and many are true-breeding, meaning that they consistently produce offspring
with only one form of a trait. Pea plants usually reproduce by self-fertilization. A
common occurrence in many flowering plants, self-fertilization occurs when a male
gamete within a flower combines with a female gamete in the same flower. Mendel
also discovered that pea plants could easily be crosspollinated by hand. Mendel
performed cross-pollination by transferring a male gamete from the flower of one pea
plant to the female reproductive organ in a flower of another pea plant (Biggs,2008).
Figure 10.7 Gregor Mendel
Mendel noticed that certain varieties of garden pea plants produced specific
forms of a trait, generation after generation. For instance, he noticed that some
varieties always produced green seeds and others always produced yellow seeds. In
order to understand how these traits are inherited, Mendel performed cross pollination
by transferring male gametes from the flower of a true-breeding green-seed plant to
the female organ of a flower from a true-breeding yellow-seed plant. To prevent
selffertilization, Mendel removed the male organs from the flower of the yellow-seed
plant. Mendel called the green-seed plant and the yellowseed plant the parent
generationalso known as the P generation (Biggs,2008).
Mendel crossed plants that bred true for purple flowers with plants that bred
true for white flowers. All of the offspring of these crosses had purple flowers, but
Mendel did not know why this pattern occurred. We now understand that one gene
governs purple flower color in pea plants. The allele that specifies purple (lets call it
P) is dominant over the allele that specifies white (p). Thus, a pea plant with two P
alleles (PP) has purple flowers, and one with two p alleles (pp) has white flowers
(Starr, 2011).
When homologous chromosomes separate during meiosis, the gene pairs on
those chromosomes separate too. Each gamete that forms carries only one of the two
genes of a pair. Thus, plants homozygous for the dominant allele (PP) can only make
gametes that carry the dominant allele P . Plants homozygous for the recessive allele
(pp) can only make gametes that carry the recessive allele p. If these homozygous
plants are crossed (PP _ pp), only one outcome is possible: A gamete carrying a P
allele meets up with a gamete carrying a p allele 3 . All of the offspring of this cross
have one of each allele, so their genotype is Pp. A grid called a Punnett square makes
it easier to predict the genetic outcomes of crosses. Because all of the offspring of
thiscross carry the dominant allele P, all have purple flowers.This pattern is so
predictable that it can be used as evidence of a dominance relationship between
alleles. Breeding experiments use such patterns to reveal genotype. In a testcross, an
individual that has a dominant trait (but an unknown genotype) is crossed with an
individual known to be homozygous recessive. The pattern of traits among the
offspring of the cross can reveal whether the tested individual is heterozygous or
homozygous. For example, we may do a testcross between aFor example, we may do
a testcross between a purpleflowered pea plant (which could have a genotype of
either PP or Pp) and a white-flowered pea plant (pp). If all of the offspring of this
cross had purple flowers, we would know that the genotype of the purple-flowered
parent was PP. A monohybrid cross is a breeding experiment that checks for a
dominance relationship between the alleles of a single gene. Individuals that are
identically heterozygous for one gene(Pp) for exampleare bred together or selffertilized. The frequency at which the two traits appear among the offspring of this
cross may show that one of the alleles is dominant over the other. To produce
identically heterozygous individuals for a monohybrid cross, we would start with two
individuals that breed true for two different forms of a trait. In pea plants, purple or
white flowers is one example of a trait with two distinct forms, but there are many
others. Mendel investigated seven of them: stem length (tall and short), seed color
(yellow and green), pod texture(smooth and wrinkled), and so on. A cross between
the two true-breeding individuals yields hybrid offspring: ones that are identically
heterozygous for the alleles that govern the trait. When these F1 (first generation)
hybrids are crossed, the frequency at which the two traits appear in the F2 (second
generation) offspring offers information about dominance relationships. F is
anabbreviation for filial, which means offspring (Starr, 2011).
The set of genes that an offspring inherits from both parents, a combination of
the genetic material of each, is called the organisms genotype. The genotype is
contrasted to the phenotype, which is the organisms outward appearance and the
developmental outcome of its genes. The phenotype includes an organisms bodily
structures, physiological processes, and behaviours. Although the genotype
determines the broad limits of the features an organism can develop, the features that
actually develop, i.e., the phenotype, depend on complex interactions between genes
and their environment. The genotype remains constant throughout an organisms
lifetime; however, because the organisms internal and external environments change
continuously, so does its phenotype. In conducting genetic studies, it is crucial to
discover the degree to which the observable trait is attributable to the pattern of genes
in the cells and to what extent it arises from environmental influence.Because genes
are integral to the explanation of hereditary observations, genetics also can be defined
as the study of genes. Discoveries into the nature of genes have shown that genes are
important determinants of all aspects of an organisms makeup. For this reason, most
areas of biological research now have a genetic component, and the study of genetics
has a position of central importance in biology. Genetic research also has
demonstrated that virtually all organisms on this planet have similar genetic systems,
with genes that are built on the same chemical principle and that function according
to similar mechanisms. Although species differ in the sets of genes they contain,
many similar genes are found across a wide range of species. For example, a large
proportion of genes in bakers yeast are also present in humans. This similarity in
genetic makeup between organisms that have such disparate phenotypes can be
explained by the evolutionary relatedness of virtually all life-forms on Earth. This
genetic unity has radically reshaped the understanding of the relationship between
humans and all other organisms. Genetics also has had a profound impact on human
affairs. Throughout history humans have created or improved many different
medicines, foods, and textiles by subjecting plants, animals, and microbes to the
ancient techniques of selective breeding and to the modern methods of recombinant
DNA technology. In recent years medical researchers have begun to discover the role
that genes play in disease. The significance of genetics only promises to become
greater as the structure and function of more and more human genes are characterized
(Anonymousb,2012).
Gregor Mendel's uhereditary factors~ were purely an abstract concept when
he proposed their existence in 1860. At that time, no cellular structures were known
that could house these imaginary units. Even after chromosomes were first observed,
many biologists remained skeptical about Mendel's laws of segregation and
independent assortment until there was sufficient evidence that these principles of
heredity had a physical basis in chromosomal behavior. Today, we can show that
genes-Mendel's ~factors"-are 10' cated along chromosomes. We can see the location
of a particular gene by tagging chromosomes with a fluorescent dye that highlights
that gene. Forexample, theyelJow dots in Figure 15.1 mark the locus of a specific
gene on a homologous pair ofhuman chromosomes. (Because the chromosomes in
this light micrograph have already replicated, we see two dots per chromosome, one
on each sister chromatid.) In this chapter, which integrates and extends what you
learned in the past two chapters, we describe the chromosomal basis for the
transmissionofgenes from parents to offspring, along with some important exceptions
to the standard mode of inheritance. Using improved techniques of microscopy,
cytologists worked out the process of mitosis in 1875 and meiosis in the 1890s.
Cytology and genetics converged when biologists began to see parallels between the
behavior of chromosomes and the behavior ofMendel's proposed hereditary factors
during sexual life cycles: Chromosomes and genes are both present in pairs in diploid
cells; homologous chromosomes separate and alleles segregate during the process of
meiosis; and fertilization restores the paired condition for both chromosomes and
genes. Around 1902, Walter S. Sutton, Theodor Boved, and others independently
noted these parallels, and the chromosome theory of inheritance began to take form.
According to this theory, Mendelian genes have specific loci (positions) along
chromosomes, and it is the chromosomes that undergo segregation and independent
assortment (Campbell,2008).
The nature of an indivdual who have genotipe consisits of genes that are
different for each type of gene is called heterozygous, Rr eg, Aa, Tt, AABB, and so
on. Character or observable physical properties (shape, color, blood type, etc) is
called
phenotype.
Phenotype
is
determined
by
genes
and
environment
(Hamka,2012).
CHAPTER III
PRACTICUM METHOD
A. Time and Place
Day / Date
: Friday / November 30th 2012
Time
: at 08.10 09.10 wita
Place
: Laboratory of Biology at 3rd floor of Biology
Departement of Science and Mathematic
Faculty, State University of Makassar
B. Tools and Materials
1. List phenotypes
SIGNED PHENOTYPES HUMAN NATURE ARE CONSIDERED
BY ETERNITY 1 GEN 2 ALLELES WITH EACH AND PRODUCE
PHENOTYPES ALLELES CLEAR
a. Dimple chin was a dominant trait (D).
b. Ends hang free earlobes weredominant trait (E).
c. People put people putting the left thumb over the right thumb when the
fingers interweave a dominant trait (F).
d. People have the tip of the little finger knuckle unline inward (toward the ring
finger) was a dominant trait (B).
e. Overhanging brow hair is a dominant trait (W).
f. Hair on fingers: the growth of hair on both side of the fingers is a dominant
trait M (use the loupe to see the fine hair).
g. Dimples is a dominant trait (P).
h. People who can roll his tongue extends a dominant trait (L).
i. People whobhave upper incisors slotted a dominant trait (G).
C. Work Procedure
1. Checked the phenotypes of any nature that is in heaven above list
phenotypes yourself. When the trouble, asked for help from kind friend in
your group. Recorded results in tabular form.
2. If you had dominant phenotypes then gave the sign (-) fo the second gene.
3. Recorded the data from your group of friends, and calculated the percentage
CHAPTER IV
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
A. Result
Table of Human Eternity Observation
1. Personal Data
Numb
1
2
3
4
Characteristic/Eternity (phenotypes)
Your Possible
There is a chin dimple (D) no (d)
Kids hanging earlobes (E) attached (e)
Left thumb on tob (F) under (f)
The knuckle bone of the little finger that most
Genotypes
d
E
F
b
tip goes askew on it was dominant (B) and not
5
was recessive (b)
Hair forehead protrudes (W) there is no hair
6
7
8
(w)
Hair on the finger (M) there is no hair (m)
Dimples (P) , no (p)
The tongue can be rolled lengthwise (L) can
M
p
L
not be rolled lengthywise (l)
Incisors gaps (G) incisors no gaps (g)
2. Data of Group
Characteristic
There is a chin dimple (D) no
(d)
Kids hanging earlobes (E)
attached (e)
Left thumb on tob (F) under
(f)
The knuckle bone of the little
Peldi
Group Member
Evhy
Ayu
Maria
Rismi
Total
dd
dd
dd
dd
dd
DD = 0
dd = 5
ee
ee
EE
ee
ee
EE = 1
ee = 4
ff
ff
FF
ff
FF
bb
bb
bb
bb
BB
FF = 2
ff = 3
BB = 1
bb = 4
finger that most tip goes
askew on it was dominant
(B) and not was recessive
(bb)
Hair forehead protrudes (W)
there is no hair (w)
Hair on the finger (M) there
is no hair (m)
Dimples (P) , no (p)
WW= 1
ww = 4
WW
ww
ww
ww
ww
MM
MM
MM
MM
MM
PP
PP
pp
PP
pp
LL
LL
LL
ll
ll
LL = 3
ll = 2
gg
gg
gg
gg
gg
GG = 0
gg = 5
MM = 5
mm = 0
PP = 3
pp = 2
The tongue can be rolled
lengthwise (L) can not be
rolled lengthywise (l)
Incisors gaps (G) incisors no
gaps (g)
3. Data of Class
Charact
eristic /
group
D d
B b
W w M mP p
G g
II
III
IV
Sum
21
19
15
18
14
21
19
14
17
B. Analysis of Data
1. Data of Group
a. Chin Dimple
dominant 100 = 0 100 =0
1) Dominant
5
of practican
dominant 100 = 5 100 =100
2) Recessive
5
of practican
b. Kids Hanging earlobes or attached
dominant
1
1) Dominant of p ractican 100 = 5 100 =20
dominant
4
2) Recessive of practican 100 = 5 100 =80
c. Left Thumb on Top
dominant 100 = 2 100 =40
1) Dominant
5
of practican
dominant
3
2) Recessive of practican 100 = 5 100 =60
d. The little finger knuckle unline inward Dominan
dominant 100 = 1 100 =20
1) Dominant
5
of practican
dominant 100 = 4 100 =80
2) Recessive
5
of practican
e. Hair at forehead protrudes
dominant 100 = 1 100 =20
1) Dominant
5
of practican
dominant
4
2) Recessive of practican 100 = 5 100 =80
f. Hair at the fingers
dominant 100 = 5 100 =100
1) Dominant
5
of practican
dominant 100 = 0 100 =0
2) Recessive
5
of practican
g. Dimples
dominant 100 = 3 100 =60
1) Dominant
5
of practi can
dominant
2
2) Recessive of practican 100 = 5 100 =40
h. Can rolled his/her tongue be along
dominant 100 = 3 100 =60
1) Dominant
5
of practican
dominant 100 = 2 100 =40
2) Recessive
5
of practican
i. People that have incisors gaps
dominant 100 = 0 100 =0
1) Dominant
5
of practican
dominant 100 = 5 100 =100
2) Recessive
5
of practican
2. Data of Class
a. Chin Dimple
dominant 100 = 2 100 =8,7
1) Dominant
23
of practican
dominant 100 = 21 100 =91,3
2) Recessive
23
of practican
b. Kids Hanging earlobes or attached
dominant 100 = 4 100 =17,4
1) Dominant
23
of practican
dominant 100 = 19 100 =82,6
2) Recessive
23
of practican
c. Left Thumb on Top
dominan t 100 = 8 100 =34,8
1) Dominant
23
of practican
dominant 100 = 15 100 =65,2
2) Recessive
23
of practican
d. The little finger knuckle unline inward Dominant
dominant 100 = 5 100 =21,7
1) Dominant
23
of practican
dominant 100 = 18 100 =78,3
2) Recessive
23
of practican
e. Hair at forehead protrudes
dominant 100 = 9 100 =39,1
1) Dominant
23
of practican
dominant 100 = 14 100 =60,9
2) Recessive
23
of practican
f. Hair at the fingers
dominant
21
1) Dominant of practican 100 = 23 100 =91,3
dominant
2
2) Recessive of practica n 100 = 23 100 =8,7
g. Dimples
dominant 100 = 4 100 =17,3
1) Dominant
23
of practican
dominant
19
2) Recessive of practican 100 = 23 100 =82,7
h. Can rolled his/her tongue be along
dominant 100 = 14 100 =60,8
1) Dominant
23
of practican
dominant 100 = 9 100 =39,2
2) Recessive
23
of practican
i. People that have incisors gaps
dominant 100 = 6 100 =26
1) Dominant
23
of practican
dominant
17
2) Recessive of practican 100 = 23 100 =74
C. Discussion
1. Analysis of Personal data
Based on the experiment that we do, For the Dimple of chin, I have
recessive. For the Tip of the auricle of ear as be free I have dominant gene, for
Thumb of left hand at up of right hand, I have dominant gene. For the
knuckle bone of the little finger that most tip goes askew on it I have
recessivet gene. For the Hair at forehead stick out I have recessive gene. Hair
at the finger (on second joints) I have dominant. For the Dimple in the check I
have recessive. For the ability to rolled the tongue be along I have dominant
gene. For the People that have incisor of on and be gap I have recessive gene.
2. Analysis of Group
Based on the experiment and analysis of result of characteristic of
individual in the class, the ratio about the dimple of chin was dominant gene
there 0 % and for the recessive gene are 100 %. The ratio of Tip of the auricle
of ears as be free dominant was 20 % and recessive was 80 %, it means that
the student in my group there are 1 student have dominant gene and 4 students
was recessive gene. The ratio of Thumb of left hand at up of right hand, for
dominant 40 % and for the recessive gene was 60 %. It means that there are 2
student have dominant gene and the other was recessive gene. The ratio of
The knuckle bone of the little finger that most tip goes askew on it, dominant
gene was 20 % and for recessive gene was 80 %., it means that 1 student in
my group is dominant and four recessive. The ratio of Hair at forehead stick
out, for the dominant gene was 20 % and for recessive gene was 80 %. It
means that four members in my group have recessive gene. The ratio of hair at
the finger (on second joints), for the dominant was 100 % and for the
recessive gene was 0 %. It means that all member of my group have recessive.
The ratio of dimple, for the dominant was 60 % and for the recessive was 40
%. It means that there are 3 student which dominant gene and 2 students was
recessive gene. The ratio of Can rolled his/her tongue be along, for dominant
was 60 % and for the recessive gene was 40 %, it means that there are 3
students which have dominant and 2 student have dominant and the other was
recessive gene. The ratio of People that have incisor of on and be gap, for
dominant gene was 0 % and for the recessive gene was 100 %. It means that
all of the members of group have recessive gene.
3. Analysis of Class
Based on the experiment and analysis of result of characteristic of
individual in the class, the ratio about the dimple of chin was dominant gene
there 8,7 % and for the recessive gene are 91,3 %, it means that the students in
ICP Physics class there are 2 that have dominant gene, and 21 that have
recessive gene. The ratio of Tip of the auricle of ears as be free dominant was
17,4 % and recessive was 82,6 %, it means that the student in ICP Physics
there are 4 student have dominant gene and 19 students were recessive gene.
The ratio of Thumb of left hand at up of right hand, for dominant 34,8 % and
for the recessive gene was 65,2 %. It means that there are 8 student have
dominant gene and the other was recessive gene. The ratio of The knuckle
bone of the little finger that most tip goes askew on it, dominant gene was
21,7 % and for recessive gene was 78,3%., it means that there are 5 students
of ICPs class which have dominant and the other was recessive gene. The
ratio of hair at forehead stick out, for the dominant gene was 39,1 % and for
recessive gene was 60,9 %. It means that there are 9 student that dominant
gene and 16 students of the was recessive gene. The ratio of hair at the finger
(on second joints), for the dominant was 91,3 % and for the recessive gene
was 8,7 %. It means that there are 21 students which dominant and 2 students
was recessive gene. The ratio of Dimple, for the dominant was 17,3% and for
the recessive was 82,7 %. It means that there are 4 students which dominant
gene and 19 students was recessive gene. The ratio of Can rolled his/her
tongue be along, for dominant was 60,8 % and for the recessive gene was 39,2
%, it means that there are 14 students which have dominant and 9 student
have recessive gene. And the last, the ratio of People that have incisor of on
and be gap, for dominant gene was 26 % and for the recessive gene was 74 %.
It means that there are 6 students of ICP which have dominant gene and 17
student was have recessive gene. And the sum of the students in ICP class was
23 students.
CHAPTER V
CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION
A. Conclussion
After we did our experiment we can get conclusion that the genotype and
fenotype from the Mendellian law and the basic genotype of some heredity
characteristic on the human. From analysis of the data in the class, total
percentage of dominant gene is around 35,23% and the recessive gene is 64,77%.
It mean that the recessive more than the dominant gene.
B. Suggestion
1. Laboratory should prepare well the tools which will be used in experiment.
2. In doing an experiment we must be careful when use the tools to avoid the
accident which probably will happen. We must observe the object carefully
and seriously so that we can find a good result.
3. The assistant should give command so we can miss the mistake while doing
the experiment.
.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Anonymousa. 2012. Eternity. http://en.wikipedia.org. Accessed on December 3rd 2012
Anonymousb. 2012. Heredity. http:/en.wikipedia.org. Accessed on December 3rd 2012
Biggs, at. el. 2008. Biology.United States of America: Glencoe.
Campbell, at. el. 2009. Biology. San Francisco: Benjamin Commings.
Hamka. 2012. Basic Biology Guide Book. Makassar: Biology Departement Faculty
of Mathematic and Science, State University of Makassar.
Starr, at. el. 2011. Biology. Canada: Cengange
ANSWER THE QUESTION
1. How much the value of dominant and recessive gene frequency in you classroom?
Answer:
The value of dominant gene =
total of dominant frequency ( percent )
total of phenotype
=
8,7 +17,4 +34,8 + 21,7 +39,1 + 91,3 +17,3 +60,8 + 26
9
= 35,23 %
The value of resesive gene
total of resesive frequency ( percent )
total of phenotype
=
91,3 +82,6 +65,2 +78,3 +60,9 +8,7 +82,7 +39,2 +74
9
= 64,77 %
