Serer ee et et ee cer Ce Cereeereereear tee Module 5 Power Source For Welding sine PART OF THE GCIL CERTIFICATE PROGRAMS RE = 8 Cae Copyright 2001 The CWB Group‘The customized Learning Programs presented by the Gooderham Centre encompass both the Block Programs formerly offered by the Bureau and the Custom Technical Learning courses (CTL), formerly available from WIC. oo) {A Division of the CWB Group) Other programs available through the Gooderham Centre: CUSTOMIZED LEARNING PROGRAMS (CLP’S) ‘The CLP is designed as an in-plant training program for the company's welding staff. The programs can cover material directly related to the work undertaken at the company, of provide general ‘welding training and manual skills upgrading. Clients can select from the Centre's existing programs or the Centre will consider preparing a program to meet the client's needs. YVYYVYV YY VY YY YY YY For availability of the programs, please contact Bruce James or Lisa Bradshaw CURRENT PROGRAM LISTING Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) Flux-Cored Arc Welding (FCAW) ‘Submerged Arc Welding (SAW) Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW) Electric Resistance Welding (ERW) Outline of CSA Standard W47.1 Outline of CSA Standard W69.1 Outline of ASME Code Section IX Welding Metallurgy of Low Alloy and Quenched and Tempered Steels Basic Metallurgy of Welding ‘Oxyfuel Gas Apparatus Health & Safety Soldering Theory and Techniques Inspection of Welded Aircraft Components Health and Safety in Aluminum Welding Aluminum Welding Metallurgy: CTOD Testing Fatigue and Fatigue Life Enhancement (905) 542.2176 Fax: (905) 542-1837 Web: www.cwbgroup.com For French Language Service, contact Louis Croteau at 514-694-8421 ) 0 2Gooderham Centre for Industrial Learning oo Fee re teeta Rate et eee eee eee eeereeereeeeey te MODULE 5 TABLE OF CONTENTS Revised Date: 10/01 Copyright: 1996, 2000 Terms and Definitions . Electrical Symbols . . Section introduction What is an Arc? ..... What is Required to Start and Sustain an Arc? . Sources of Power for Welding Arcs Section 2: Electrical Princip! Electrical Sources . . . Conduction of Current Resistance ...... Electrical Power . . Resistors in Series Potentiometer Circuit Rheostat Circuit . . Parallel Circuits Graphical Circuit Analysis . AC Circuit Analysis Inductance . Phase Shift . Power Factor Capacitance .. Power Factor Correction Electromagnetic Induction . Rotating AC Generator . AC Alternator . DC Generators . .. Multi-Phase Generators ‘Three-Phase Source Connections . Transformers .... Transformer Taps . Solid-State Diodes Rectification of ACGooderham Centre for Industrial Learning By Section 3: Characteristics of Welding Arcs Conduction of Current in Solids and Gases 38 lonization ........ --89 Electrical Breakdown. .40 Polarity and Current Flow Arc V-| Characteristics Process Polarity .. . Section 4: Process Characteristics and Power Requirements Gas Tungsten Arc Welding Plasma Arc Welding Gas Metal Arc Welding Flux Cored Arc Welding .... Submerged Arc Welding . . Shielded Metal Arc Welding Conduction of Current in the Arc ) ) ) ) y Section 5: Arc Welding Equipment Design Early Power Source Technologies 47 DC Generators ... . 48 Welding Transformers . 49 Transformer Rectifier Technology 50 Silicon Controlled Rectifiers (SCR) - Thyristors Silicon Controlled Rectifier Technology . Transistor Circuits ......... Transistor Controlled Machines . Switching Circuit . . . Inverter Technology Inverter Control Methods. a &aetna y Gooderham Centre for Industrial Learning Section 6: Power Source Control Systems Manual versus Automatically Controlled Arcs Power Source Droop ........... Constant Voltage/Constant Current CV versus CC Arc Operation Manual Arc Control Manual Arc Control Inputs . Self-Regulation of the Arc . CV System Control Inputs .. Voltage Controlled Wire Feed Voltage Controlled Inputs. ‘Synergic Welding Control . Open Circuit Voltage Short Circuit Current Reactive Current Control Tap Controlled Reactance . Magnatic Circuit Controlled Reactance Magnetic Circuit Controlled Transformer Saturable Reactors ............ Inductive Power Factor . Electrical Feedback Control . Output or Stabilizing Inductance . Multi-Process Power Sources Microprocessor Controls. . Section 7: Arc Starting Systems Arc Starter Circuits — HF . . Are Starter Circuits - Impulse Starting by Shorting . . Mechanism of Arc Initiation by Shorting Section 8: Special Process Control Features Pulsing Pulsed GTAW Pulsed GMAW . : Synergic Pulse GMAW .Gooderham Centre for Industrial Learning Section 9: How to Select a Welding Power Supply Primary Application ....... ve BS Required Current Range, DC, AC or AC/DC, Power Source Characteristic Duty Cycle Utiity Power Availabilty Additional Features Weight and Portability Robustness and Retailty i Complexity .... interface to Mechanized or Robotic Equipment Suppliers, Spare Parts, Service, Ease of Repair, Training . Funds Available, Retum on Investment, and Electrical Efficiency ‘Section 10: Practical Application Setting Up a System . Grounding .... Cable Size and Length Calibration and Monitoring Electrical Interference From Arc Welding . Troubleshooting Fault Types . Systematic Identification of Equipment Problems Faultfinding Guide Section 11: Standards and Safety Guides and Exercises ‘Test and Answer SheetsSa ae ere eepeeureearea Gooderham Centre for Industrial Learning eee career reece cece eee ees tee Armature Capacitance Conduct Dielectric Electrically Bonded Electromotive Force pene Sir remeron tome ned ) Electrostatic Ferromagnetic Inductance Impedence Inertia ton ] tonized Reactance Terms and Definitions The alloy iron core carrying the colls of insulated wire to be revolved through the magnetic field The property of a circuit or device that permis it to store an electrical charge. To serve as a medium of transmission, Electrically non-conducting. To provide a low impedence path obtained by permanently joining all non-ourrent carrying metal parts to assure electrical continuity and having the capacity to conduct safely any currect likely to be imposed on it That which tends to produce a flow of electricity from one point to another. A potential charge of electricity at rest, such as a battery or other storage device. Highly magnetic, as is iron, or an easily magnetized substance. The ability of a circuit or davice to produce induction. Where induction is the production of an electric current in a conductor by variation of a magnetic field in its vicinity. ‘The total opposition to an alternating current presented by a circuit. (The algebraic sum of resistance, capacitance and inductance.) A property of matter whereby any physical body persists in its state of rest of of urtiform motion until acted upon by some external force. ‘An atom or group of atoms that is not electrically neutral but instead carries a positive or negative charge. To convert or become converted completely or partially by ions. ‘The opposition to an alternating current caused by inductance and capacitance.ence Do Gooderham Centre for Industrial Learning i Resistance ‘The opposition that a conductor offers to the passage of current, resulting from the conversion of energy into heat, light, etc. Saturation The state at which the material has become fully magnetized. Static V-1 Curve In relation to welding power sources; it refers to the output of the machine when the load is constant or non-fluctuating. The graph is created by applying a steady load and measuring the power source output response. » > } ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) } ay. ,oy aaa etapa eee ees ee Gooderham Centre for Industrial Learning Electrical Symbols AC voltage source & my “ik capacitor 7 = diode —De ground(earth) EHTEL inductor(iron core) Lad oe = potentiometer resistor(fixed) resistor(variable) theostatGooderham Centre for Industrial Learning a Electrical Symbols Continued y 7 y Transfomer(air core) 3 f ) 4 transformer(iron core) aE 2 i ; a transformer(tapped secondary) IE } transistor G&A ; d ) silicon-control-rectifier(SCR) ye spark gap tee ) switch(open) eee Seats cee an : > ‘ ) > switch(closed) : ) voltmeter (v) :Gooderham Centre for Industrial Learning Power Sources for Arc Welding Section 1: Introduction What is an Arc? ‘An arc is a passage of electric current between two electrodes through a gas, which is in a state that permits it to conduct electricity. Normally gases such as air or argon do not conduct electricity. They have a high resistance to the passage of electrical current and therefore act as insulators. However, in some situations a gas may become ionized: the neutral gas atoms are split into gas ions carrying a positive electrical charge, and free electrons carrying a negative charge. The ionized gas is called a “plasma”, and now has the capacity to carry current. The most obvious example of an arc in nature is lightning. In a typical lightning strike, electrical potential (the capability of doing work) is gradually built up in the cloud. Very high voltages are developed between the cloud and the ground and eventually the voltage overcomes the high electrical resistance of the air. A lightning strike follows, with a very short discharge ‘of many millions of amps. A welding arc is controlled so that conduction of hundreds of amps can be sustained over a period of time. Arcs have found use in a number of industrial applications such as welding and steel making. High intensity lighting systems in the past commonly used an electric discharge between two carbon electrodes in air to generate an intense source of light. Electrodes are the components of an electric circuit between which the arc operates. In a typical arc welding application the workpiece will form one electrode, and the other electrode is either a tungsten rod or a filler wire. Figure 1.1 shows two typical arrangements. When Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (@TAW) with direct current, a negative voltage is applied to the tungsten electrode. Tungsten has a very high melting point and is not consumed as part of the process. When Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) a positive voltage is typically applied to an automatically fed wire electrode which is consumed and forms art of the weld joint. Nozzle Teel a Contact Tube Non-Consumable Tungsten Electrode Shielding Gas. zH te Contact Tube Nozzle to ‘ to Work Distance Solidified Weld Metal Figure 1.1(a): Gas Tungsten Arc Welding 9Gooderham Centre for Industrial Learning < Travel Contact Tube Figure 1.1(b): Gas Metal Arc Welding For GTAW and GMAW, the arc can be observed as a conical or bell shape region of intense heat and blue-white light. The temperatures in the central column of the arc are extremely high, ranging from ‘500°C to 50,000°C. The majority of the welding current is conducted within the central arc column, and ‘outside this region the temperature falls very rapidly. ‘What is Required to Start and Sustain an Arc? ‘One of the simplest ways to start an arc is to touch the electrode to the work piece and then pull it away - known as a touch or scratch start. If the electrode and workpiece are connected to a source of power which is able to supply a suitable voltage and current then an arc can be formed. The arc is sustained by the energy supplied from the power supply. Arcs which form between contacts which are being pulled apart (a switch disconnecting a load), can often cause problems. Electrical circuits are designed to prevent arcs from forming and destroying the switch, Another method of starting an arc is to use a very high voltage to break down the resistance of the gap between the electrode and workpiece (create an ionized column of gas). A high voltage with a low current capacity is used to oreate a spark. The spark represents the ionized path. The main power spurce can now supply current through the ionized path. This is one method that GTAW uses to initiate an arc. Sources of Power for Welding Arcs One of the earliest power sources for welding arcs were lead acid batteries. Later, specially designed motor generators were used to deliver power in a form suitable for welding, and eventually utility supplied ‘AC power was used with transformers and transformer-rectifiers. In Module 4 you learn that each welding process and consumable combination has a particular requirement from the power supply. The source of power must be designed in such a way that the requirements of the process are matched by its output. Designs of welding power supplies have become increasingly sophisticated. Modern power supplies generally use electronic controls to match the power supply to the requirements of the process. The 7 10Gooderham Centre for Industrial Learning eae eS ena advantage of electronically controlled power sources is the ability to meet the needs of many different processes from one machine. Transformer-based machines generally operate from utility supplied power. In field work a gas or diesel driven generator may be used to provide electrical power for welding. In the next section, basic electrical concepts important in arc welding power supplies will be reviewed before moving on to consider the detailed requirements of each arc welding process. Weee Gooderham Centre for Industrial Learning Ire ee Section 2: Electrical Principles ‘An understanding of the operation of the welding arc and welding machines requires a review of the fundamentals of electricity, electrical power, and electro-magnetic effects. The purpose of this section Is to explain these effects, and describe how they are put to use in practical circuits as used in welding equipment. Electrical Sources ‘The most fundamental part of an electrical system is the source of electrical potential, or voltage. The voltage in an electrical system Is equivalent to the force in a mechanical system or the pressure In a hydraulle system. The potential or voltage is sometimes referred to as the “electromotive force” or “EMF”. It is the voltage applied across an electrically conductive “circuit” which produces current flow (flow of electrical charge) through the circuit. The flow of current produces the useful effects in the circuit; the generation of heat, light, or motion. Electrical potentials or voltages are measured in “volts”. The most readily known sources of voltage are batteries. Batteries create a voltage by chemical processes. The voltage is maintained across the terminals of the battery until the electrochemical reaction is used up. The battery must then be replaced or renewed (recharged), Voltage also can be produced by a process known as electrical induction. A voltage can also be induced by the variation of a magnetic field applied to a stationary conductor”. Doing that gives a meaning to the following sentence starting with: This is the essential difference between an alternator ‘and a generator. Electrical induction can provide large amounts of electricity on a continuous basis at a wide range of voltage levels. Most large scale sources of electricity use electrical induction. Conduction of Current When a conductive circuit made up of wires and electrical components is connected to the output of a voltage source, current will flow from one side of the voltage source, through the circuit, and back to the ‘opposite side of the source. This produces the useful results from an electric circuit. The copper wire generally used in an electrical circuit is a good conductor (.e., it provides iow resistance to the passage of current). The convention normally used in engineering is that the current flows from the positive terminal of the source through the circuit to the negative terminal (this is called “conventional current’). In most engineering situations, the convention of current flowing from positive to negative helps in ‘analyzing circuits and making in calculations. However, since electrons have a negative charge they flow in the opposite direction. Electrons travel from the negative terminal through the circuit to the positive terminal. When considering the physical effects caused by arcs, the situation Is analyzed In terms of electron flow rather than conventional current. This is frequently a source of confusion when ‘studying welding processes. 12f eee ae ate a ae ee Gooderham Centre for Industrial Learning $e Resistance The primary characteristic of an electrically conducting circuit attached to a source of voltage is its resistance to the flow of current (Figure 2.1). The resistance of a circuit is denoted by the symbol, ‘R’, and has the units of ‘ohms’. Ohm's law states that the current T’ which will flow through a circuit with a resistance, R, when a voltage, V, is applied across itis calculated 12 WR where: Tis current in amperes Ris resistance in Ohms Vis voltage in volts Ohm's Law is more commonly written: V=IR If the voltage and current flowing through a circuit is known, then the resistance of the circuit can be found by arranging the equation as: r-¥ Ohm's Law is true for metallic conductors. It essentially states that the current flowing in the circuit is directly proportional to voltage. Ohm's law does not apply to some materials such as semiconductors and transistors. Most importantly, Ohm’s Law does not apply to a welding arc. The current in the arc is not proportional to the voltage across the arc. The arc still has a resistance R = V/I, but the resistance is not constant, and depends upon the applied voltage and current, passing through a given media. The resistance, R, of a wire is proportional to its length, “7, and inversely proportional to cross sectional area ‘A’. Larger diameter wires have more surface area and thus less resistance. The following formula, appl . RaW where: A is cross sectional area in square meters Zis length in meters rig resistivity in Ohm meters The factor ‘r’ is a constant for a metal at a given temperature; called the ‘resistivity’ of the material, in units of ohm-m. (Ohms x meters). Metals and their alloys have different values of resistivity. Copper has tow resistivity and is therefore a good conductor, titanium has high resistivity and is therefore a poor conductor. Copper is widely used for connections, and conductors where low resistance is required. 13el Don Gooderham Centre for Industrial Learning Welding cables are a good example. Aluminum has higher resistivity than copper but because it aiso thas lower density (lower weight for a given cable size) it has lower resistance per unit weight than copper. ‘Aluminum has advantages where the weight of the conductor is an issue. For example; electrical utilities use aluminum cables in long, large transmission lines because of its much lighter weight and lower cost. The resistivity of some common metals at 20°C (68°F) are as follows: + Copper 1.7.x 10°8 ohmm * Aluminum 2.7 x 10°8 ohm-m ce Tungsten 5.6 x 10°8 ohm-m . Iron 9.7 x 10°8 ohm-m + Titanium = 43. x 10°8 ohm-m Electrical Power Electrical power is measured in ‘watts’. Power is measured as a combination of the pressure (volts) and the flow rate of current (amperes). If a source supplies a voltage, V, at a current, I, into a circuit, then the electrical power, 'P’, delivered to the circuit in watts (joutes/second) can be calculated by: P=VI where: P is power in watts and by using Ohm's Law, another useful formula for power can be derived as: ‘some light. P=I2R or Ve R ome Electrical power is transformed into peeve heat, light, or motion depending upon the device the current is flowing Sonantonal_ through. In devices such as electric “fens) heaters and hair dryers, the electrical ‘ energy is transformed into heat (thermal energy). In a light bulb, the filament becomes very hot and some of the energy is transformed into visible light. In a welding arc, energy is transformed mostly into heat, and Ohm’stew: T= VaR Power in Circult: P= VI Figure 2.1: Voltage, Resistance, and Current In Electrical Circuits 14, 2 JLGooderham Centre for industrial Learning ee ea ere eee eer eee ee The analysis of electrical circuits involves applying concepts of conservation of energy and charge. The conservation of energy law states that “the total energy of an isolated system remains constant regardless of changes within the system.” Energy is not created or destroyed, it simply changes from one form to another. For example, the chemical energy stored in a battery is converted into electrical energy which is delivered to the lightbulb of a flashlight where it is converted into light and heat. Energy delivered to a circuit by the source must be dissipated in the circuit. Current flow in the circuit must always equal that being delivered by the source. This results in two laws: . Kirchoff’s voltage law states that around a circuit, (starting at one point and returning to that point) voltages must add up to zero. ° Kirchoff’s current law states that current flow into any point in the circuit must be balanced by current flow out. ‘These two laws enable the creation of formulas for determining the resistance in a complex circuit. Resistors in Series A series circuit is a circuit with only a single path for current flow. The current must be the same at all points in the circuit and the current delivered by the source must equal that which passes through. the resistance. A resistor or resistive device causes a voltage drop as the current passes through. A pure resistor converts energy into heat. If two resistors are in the series circuit, the current must be the same through each resistor. The voltage drop which occurs at each resistor will depend upon the value of the resistance. The sum of the voltage drops across the two must be equal to that from the source. The following formulas are illustrated in Figure 2.2: V4 =1Ry and Vz =IRp . Vg=V14Ve Hence: Vg = IR; +R Vg=IRe where: Ags the total or equivalent resistance of the circuit Vg Is the total voltage for the circuit. 15Gooderham Centre for Industrial Learning therefore the total resistance can be written as: Rig= Ry + Re Figure 2.2 describes the effect of multiple resistors in a series circuit. Two resistors in a series circuit can be considered to have an “equivalent” resistance. This will be equal to the sum of the two resistances, as far as the power source is concemed. It is often convenient to consider two resistors in series to be represented as a single resistor with an equivalent resistance when making calculations. The voltage drop across each resistor will of course be a function of the value of the resistor. The schematic below illustrates resistors in series; 1 Resistance in Series Circuit R =R +R st Equivalent Giroult e Figure 2.2: Resistors in Series Potentiometer Circuit A circuit of two series resistors is often useful as a ‘voltage-divider’ circuit since the voltage across the ‘second resistor is a fraction of the total voltage, as shown in Figure 2.2. A potentiometer circuit uses a single resistor with a sliding contact in the middle for a third connection, in essence dividing the resistor into two resistors (Figure 2.3). Position of the sliding contact determines the ratio of resistances and, the “output voltage” of the circuit. Variable resistors are often called potentiometers or pots because they vary the voltage or potential. The potentiometer provides a simple way of generating a variable voltage from a fixed voltage source. Such circuits are often used to provide a varying voltage signal to electrical ‘equipment, the slider position being set by a knob on the control panel of the equipment, See Figure 2.3. 7 16 eee tee ts eee eensGooderham Centre for industrial Learning © R, +z =m R, * [toad es : s Figure 2.3: Potentiometer Circuit << Rheostat Circuit Another important series circuit is to place a variable resistance in “series” with an electrical load. This provides a way to control the power fed to a device. In this case, only one end of the variable resistor ‘and the sliding connection are used. The current in the circuit is controlled by changing the total resistance in the circuit. When used in this manner the variable resistor is called a “rheostat" (Figure 2.4), The disadvantage of such a circuit is that a considerable amount of power is lost in the rheostat as heat. Rheostats were commonly used in early electrical circults for the control of electrical power. Figure 2.4: Rheostat Circult Parallel Circuits Circuits constructed to allow multiple current paths or branches are called “parallel circuits’. The simplest circuit consists of two resistors “in parallel” shown in Figure 2.6. In this case, the voltage must be the same across each resistor since they are connected in common to the same voltage source (Figure 2.5). Current through each resistor depends upon its value of resistance. The currents must sum at the ‘common points - the total current flowing must equal the sum of the currents passing through the two resistors. The equations may be written: iu 7; Gooderham Centre for Industrial Learning Trotat=14 +12 Vg (Re = Vg /Ry + Vg Ro ‘The equivalent or total resistance Re is given by: Ry = Ry + Wg or Note that a parallel circuit of two resistors may be considered to have an equivalent resistance as shown in Figure 2.5, represented by a single I equivalent resistor in . z RR, ‘series with the source. jivalent "Gru Ve QO Rev Parelle! Vs Circuit Figure 2.5: Resistors in Parellel Graphical Circuit Analysis {tis often useful to analyze circuits by graphical methods, rather than with equations. This involves the determination of the so-called Volt-Ampere, or V-1, characteristics of electrical elements in a circuit. Welding power sources are loosely defined by their Volt-Ampere output curves. A constant voltage power source will have an output curve which is nearly horizontal. A constant current power source will ‘have an output curve which is drooping and nearly vertical over most of the useable range. , ) , ) , ) ) ) ) ) ) 1 ) ) } > ) ) )te CY ee ee eee cee eres eee Gooderham Centre for Industrial Learning In Figure 2.6 a constant voltage power source Is graphed as supplying 20 volts whatever the current in the circuit. This is plotted as a horizontal line on the graph. The load has a resistance value of 0.1 ohms. This is graphed as a line with slope equaling 0.1, since R= V/l = 0.1. The intersection of these two lines gives the operating point, in this case a current of 200 amps at 20 volts. This simple result could ‘obviously have been found by applying Ohm's law. But welding arcs do not obey Ohm’s law. Welding power sources often are not true constant voltage (or constant current). Graphical analysis will be seen to be very useful in understanding are welding processes. 200A eae —@-— + + V. R=01ohms= 20V Ss Figure 2.6. Graphical Circult Analysis Volt’amp characteristics can be measured experimentally, and then graphed for the purpose of studying and understanding circuit operation, An electrical source characteristic (e.g., power source characteristic) is found by setting the output of the source and then varying the load. This information is then plotted on a graph to show how the power source voltage and current output vary with the changing load. In are welding, the arc is a load which varies continuously. In manual welding especially, changing arc length causes large changes in the ‘arc load’ on the power source. The power source must then respond to the changing arc load in order to produce smooth welding process operation. The appropriate change in power source output is dependant upon the welding procedure, ‘The characteristic of an electrical load circuit is found by connecting it to a variable source and plotting how the current, flowing to the load, varies with voltage from the source. AC Circuit Analysis ‘ADC voltage source such as a battery produces currents and voltages throughout the cirouit which are constant and referred to as direct current, or DC. Utlties do not supply power as direct current because it is more difficul to raise or lower DC voltage than AC voltage. Generation at electric power plants produces altemating current, or AC, where the current varies like a sine wave (Figure 2.7). Tho frequency in Canada and the USA is 60 cycles per second or 60 Hertz (1 Hz = tcycle per second). A sinusoidal AC voltage source produces currents, and voltages which vary in a sinusoidal manner, ! 19Gooderham Centre for industrial Learning na throughout the circuit. It is useful to note that AC may take on other waveforms such as square Waves depending upon the type of source and the desired character of its output. Circuit analysis is essentially the same as that for direct current circuits. The exception is that each voltage and current in the circuit has an amplitude, which varies in a sinusoidal fashion at the frequency of the AC voltage source. Je Ve ws = 0.707 x Peak = 120v RMS = 0.707 x Posk = 120A, Vpn 470 yan 1704 4 Ml ‘One Cycle ‘One Oyeie toi Voltage Cycle Current Cycle ——> Average Power a = 120x120 420VAC R=4.0 ohm Ebr = 14.4 kilowatts (kW) Figure 2.7. AC Circult Anal Inan AC circuit, current is positive as often as it is negative. This means that the average current is zero. ADC voltage and current meter measures average voltage and current and therefore cannot be used to measure altemating current. The meter would read “zero” when connected to an AC circuit. However, power is dissipated in AC circuits and is independent of current direction. It can be shown that if the square root of the average of the square of current and voltage at any time is used for calculation (called the root mean square, or RMS), then the same formula for power can be used, Hence, for a sinusoidal AC circuit, the power P is given by: P= Vims ‘rms EP See cere ee tee are eee a a :eee eis ee ee Gooderham Centre for Industrial Learning AC voltage and current meters are designed to measure RMS values. It is the RMS value of current cr voltage which is measured and used in AC circult calculations. Thus, if 120 VAC (RMS) is applied to a 1.0 ohm resistor then 120 AAC (RMS) flows through the resistor. The actual power dissipated in the tasistor will be 120VAC x 120AAC = 14,400 watts. The power dissipation will be exactly the same as if 120 VDC was applied to the resistor. The peak value of AG voltage is larger than the RMS value. For example, the peak voltage of a standard line voltage of 120VAC is given by: Vpoax=/2 Vine 1-414 x 120 volts = 170 volts The actual voltage at a particular point in time can be calculated from the equation for a sine wave. It should be noted that the factor applies only to sinusoidal AC. Other AC waveforms, such as square- wave, have different factors that must be determined and applied. +100 +707 Peak ett oe Th\— [reu\\ antase [Eta | Peak Figure 2.8: Relationships of Various AC Values ‘The use of RMS amplitudes for AC circuits allows them to be analyzed in an equivalent manner to DC circuits. As a result, AC circuits can often be considered without reference to the sinusoidal nature of the waveform. This greatly simplifies AC circuits. Of course, there are times when the sinusoidal nature must be included for a complete and accurate picture of circuit behavior. The following table can be used for the conversion of various AC values.Gooderham Centre for Industrial Learning Table 2.1: Conversion of AC Sine Wave Values Muliply Peak by 2| Multply Peak | abbot By 0.707 Mutily Pesk-Peak | posk - Peak by 05 cH eare® | Mutt Effectve | Multiply Effective Multiply Effective | Denaianlat By 1441 By 2.82 By 0st Multiply Average | Multiply Average | ‘Average By 157 | Bata Es mo as A Triplet Type Meter Will Read: 1) RMS on AC ; 2) Average when reading rectified DC | Inductance Inductance is a property of a circuit just as resistance. Any circuit which is capable ‘of producing a magnetic flux has inductance. Any change in the current flowing in circuit causes a change in the ‘magnetic flux. The changing magnetic flux will induce a voltage (emf) and this voltage will oppose the change that produces it. The effect is called a ‘counter emf”. A coil of wire reacts differently when an AC current is passed through it than when a DC current is. imposed. In a DC circuit the inductive effect is realized only when the current is changing (eg. when a switch is tumed on or off). Under steady current flow conditions (DC) the coll acts as a pure resistance ‘and has the ability to store energy, In an AC circuit current is changing continually and therefore inductive effects are created (Figure 2.9). ‘When a changing current passes through a coil, a magnetic field is created in the coil. The strength of the magnetic field (flux) changes with the amount of current flow and the speed at which the current flow is changing. The magnetic field induces an “emf (voltage is often referred to as electro-motive force or emf). The emf induced in the coil will oppose changes in the strength of the magnetic field or “flux”. The ‘overall effect is that the coil acts to impede the flow of current in an AC circuit. It will be seen later that inductors (coils) can be used to control the flow of current in a circuit. / If we make an analogy to a mechanical system; the coil in series in an AC circuit acts like a flywheel. A “lywhee!” in a mechanical system is used to stabilize speed by the inertia of a spinning mass. Inertial i 22 | sete teeteae eLovrvuLreo lv let ee ee 22 Voltage 7 Unies ° & ‘ i TaTk a —@ P P(AVG) = 0 Figure 2.10: Phase Shift It may be useful here to consider the operation of a hydraulic system. in order to create useful hydraulic power, both sufficient pressure and sufficient volume (flow rate) are needed simultaneously. Pressure and flow rate are needed to do work. Consider a high pressure pump without a reservoir of fluid or a reservoir without a pump to create pressure. In each case no flow occurs and no work is done. Voltage oF electro-motive force can offen be thought of as the pressure which causes current to flow. Current represents the volume of flow which is passing through the system. In Figure 2.10 we see that the rise and fall of voltage and current do not occur together. If we look at the graphs for voltage and current, when voltage is maximum, current is zero. At another moment in time, when current is maximum voltage is zero. In both cases the actual power flow is then also zero. In electrical terms; current and voltage are said to be 90 deg. out-of-phase. It can be seen by multiplying the instantaneous value of current and voltage (Figure 2.10) that the average power is zero. The inductor effectively stores energy in one quarter cycle, and releases it back to the source in the next quarter cycle, 25pew ee bebe ee wee Gooderham Centre for Industrial Learning A relationship between the applied voltage in a capacitor can be written just as for an inductance: V=iX Here the capacitive reactance X¢ is given by: Xo= Vente where: C is the capacitance in Farads. Note that for DC, f = 0, and hence X¢ is infinite, and the current will be zero. Capacitance in an AC circuit produces a similar (but actually complimentary) effect to inductance, In @ purely capacitive AC circuit, the 1ACiams) = —YAC (RMS) current /eads the voltage by —> Xe 90 deg. (one fourth cycle), 7 rather than lagging as in the 4 : Inductive elreult tt would pernhid Conducting ‘again be found that the Plates average power delivered to the capacitor over one cycle of the VAC(RMS) AC is zero, thus the circuit would have a power factor of zero, The absence of any power delivery is manifested by a lack of any rise in temperature of the capacitor. Xe FAC : Capacitance in an AC Circuit Power Factor Correction A.circuit with a power factor of one is said to have “unity power factor”, Less current is required to supply a given kilowatt load at unity power factor than at low power factor. A capacitor can be utilized to cancel out the effect of inductance in a circuit, for the purpose of changing the power factor (Figure 2.12). This is called power factor correction, and the capacitor is called a power factor correction capacitor. By placing a capacitor in the circuit with an inductor we can create a balancing effect. The required capacitor size will depend on the amount of inductance and the frequency of the AC. Most practical circuits will have some resistance in the circuit, usually representing the electrical load. In this case the resistance also must be included in determination of the required capacitance for power factor correction. 27Gooderham Centre for Industrial Learning | VAC Electromagnetic Induction What happens physically is; with the capacitance correctly placed, electrical power circulates between the inductance and capacitance, rather than between the inductive device and voltage source. If the capacitance is located next to the inductance, it frees the electrical system from es the burden of circulating the power back to Cc EE the source (e.g,, the electrical power plant). Altemating current welding ares like lagging power factor, This type of phase shift causes the voltage to be nearer its peak when current passes though zero, thereby helping to re-ignite the arc when the current's direction reverses Figure 2.12: Power Factor Correction Hf @ magnet is moved quickly into a coll of wire, a voltage will be created known as “induced electromotive force (EMF)”. If the magnet is quickly removed, an EMF is also induced, but in the ‘opposite direction. Where a magnet is held stationary and the wire is moved the same effect is created. ‘The current caused to flow due to this induced EMF is called “induced current’. The phenomenon of an EMF induced in a conductor as it cuts or Is cut by a magnetic field is called “electromagnetic induction” (Figure 2.13). Voltage (EMF) | Conductor \ Magnetic Field Figure 2.13: Induced Voltage (EMF) 28 -DLClISLee : Gooderham Centre for Industrial Learning (2) - the strength of the magnetic field induced Voltage (EMF) Magnetic Field Figure 2.14: moved. The strength of the magnetic field affects the amount of EMF being generated. A stronger magnetic field has more lines of force than a weak field. If the coil is passed through a stronger field at the same speed it will be cutting more lines of force and the EMF induced will be greater. The magnetic lines of flux in the gap between the poles of a magnet are most closely packed at the canter (Figure 2.15). Therefore passing the conductor perpendicularly between the poles of a magnet increases the effect of induction because the field strength changes more rapidly. \duced Voltage in a Coll The main factors which affect the amount of induced EMF are: - the number of conductors in series (tums in a coil) - the speed at which the magnetic field is changing The amount of EMF induced in a single strand ‘of wire has limited uses. If we replace this single strand with a coil of wire greater EMF's can be produced. Each tum of the coil represents another conductor passing through the magnetic field. Each turn is of course in “series” with its neighbour and therefore the total EMF output becomes the sum of that produced in each turn (Figure 2.14) Coil When the speed at which a conductor moves through a magnetic field increases the amount of induced EMF increases. The amount of EMF induced is directly proportional to the speed at which the magnetic lines of force are cut. Therefore, it makes no difference whether the conductor or the magnetic field is rl | Conductor Magnetic Field Is more dense along the centerline than at the surfaces. Figure 2.15: Magnetic Field Strength 29Gooderham Centre for Industrial Learning 9) The magnetic field could be produced in two ways: 1 as - from a permanent magnet y: ) d - from an electromagnet composed of a ferromagnetic core wrapped with a current carrying coil of wire. t ‘The magnetic field created by the current flow is intensified by the core and concentrated into the gap. ‘The most powerful industrial magnets are electromagnets. Induction generators generally require a means 10 produce a magnetic field, and an electrical conductor in which the voltage is induced. Generating machines for producing electricity are based on this relatively simple concept of induction of a voltage in a conductor. Rotating AC Generator ‘The rotating electrical generator was the natural implementation of the induction concept that quickly caught on in the development of electricity for practical use, Essentially, an electrical conductor is formed into loops and attached to a shaft. The shaft is rotated perpendicular to a magnetic field (Figure 2.16). This results in a voltage induced around the loops which varies as shown. The frequency of the sine ‘wave, f, is determined by the rotational speed of the shaft. The simple generator in Figure 2.16 rotated at 3600 RPM would produce a sinusoidal frequency of 60 Hertz (cycles/second). Coils, rather than a | _ single loop of conductor, are used to increase the voltage (each tun creates an increment in the voltage output). Sliding electrical contacts are required to pick up the voltage from the rotating conductors. This t is accomplished with rotating rings and stationary sliding contacts called “brushes”. This type of rotating electrical generator is called an AC generator. eet w Brushes Figure 2.16: Rotating AC Generator eS 30~Pe Gooderham Centre for industrial Learning aa ee eee IE eee eee eer ee ee ee The conducting loop in which the voltage is induced is called the “armature”. The element of the machine which produces the magnetic field is called the field member or magnet. 1n the case shown in Figure 2.16, the armature is also called the rotor since it rotates, and the field member is called the stator since itis stationary. AC Alternator ‘Amore robust variation of the AC generator principle is to utilize a fixed armature and a rotating magnetic field. A voltage is induced around the loops of the armature in exactly the same manner as an AC generator. The advantage is that the electrical connections to the armature may be fixed, and no sliding contacts are required. This is advantageous to the practical operation of a machine as current flow through sliding connections produces rapid wear and deterioration. The result is that alternator design requires less maintenance. In actual implementations, the magnetic field member is rotated inside the fixed armature windings, producing essentially the same result in an even more effective design (Figure 2.17). Such machines are called AC alternators, or just alternators, and represent the practical design of modem rotating electrical machines for AC power goneration. In this case, the armature is the stator and the field member is the rotor. The most common use of an alternator is on an automobile engine. Figure 2.17: AC Alternator Permanent magnets in portable welding equipment could create a reliability issue. Permanent magnets ccan loose their magnetism by shocks. Striking a permanent magnet with a hammer for example wil cause its magnetic field to be lost. Portable welding equipment is often moved around construction sites in the back of truck and this will present the opportunity for an equipment failure due to a lost of magnetism. ‘ ‘The field magnet in both the AC generator and alternator designs is usually created by an electromagnet rather than a permanent magnet as has been depicted. ‘Therefore field windings and some current flow are required to produce the magnetic field. Since relatively low currents are required compared to the armature current, the required sliding connections are not a significant problem in the alternator design. The electrical source for the current in the electromagnet is called the exciter. Excitation may be obtained from a separate source (separately excited) or from the main generator output itself (self-excited). 31| Gooderham Centre for Industrial Learning oF | DC Generators 3-- ‘Commutating switches can be utilized to rectify the sinusoidal waveform from an AC generator to produce a rectified DC as illustrated in Figure 2.18. The design of the commutator involves a rotating split ring and sliding commutator brushes. Refinement of such machines with additional ring segments allows the production of near DC output. Such machines are called DC generators or dynamos. Figure 2.18: DC Generators DC generators were widely used in the early days of electricity, including arc welding, where DC electricity was preferred. The main drawback of the DC generator is wear. The rings and brushes require frequent replacement. When brushes are replaced, a procedure called “stoning in” must be performed before welding can be allowed. The stoning process shapes the brushes to fit the commutator radius and prevents arcing. Rectification of AC from alternators utilizing rectifying diodes has superseded the use of DC generators in modern electrical power conversion for the production of DC voltage. (DC generators are stil available and popular due to,their high operator appeal.) An example of the change from the use of DC generators is in automotive electrical systems. In the 1960's, alternators with rectifying diodes built-in to provide a DC output replaced DC generators. Thus the term atteratorfor the systems used to produce DC voltage in automotive applications. So eeGooderham Centre for Industrial Learning aia Multl-Phase Generators The sinusoidal output of a simple AC generator or alternator is called “single phase’. in modern electrical power generation, multiple, identical armature windings are commonly utilized so as to produce muttiple AC outputs from a single alternator. These windings are typically spaced evenly around the armature such as to produce equally spaced “phases” of the electrical outputs. Three-phase alternators have the windings spaced equally such as to produce three sinusoidal waves each shifted by one-third cycle or 120 deg. (Figure 2.19). Three- phase is the standard for most power generation in Canada and the USA. A three-phase generator may be thought of as producing three separate single-phases, each identical ‘except being shifted in time. ‘Three phase power has a number of advantages, including the ability to connect phases in different ways to produce a range of voltages, and for use with equipment which is designed to operate efficiently from the three-phase supply. Residential electrical systems are single- phase, being derived from three-phase at electrical substations. Industrial power is usually delivered to the site and distributed as three-phase. Three Armatures: on a Common Shaft Figure 2.19; Multi-Phase Generators Three-Phase Source Connections Voltage from three-phase power generators are not typically transmitted with six wires - two for each phase (as might be envisioned). Instead, the sources are interconnected into three or four wire connections (Figure 2.20). One type of connection is called a delta and results in three wires. This connection is typical of long distance electrical transmission. The voltage between any two of the wires will be the voltage produced by the corresponding armature winding, called the phase voltage. A commen connection for distributing three-phase power locally is the four- wire wye connection. Voltage ! 33: : | rc} Gooderham Centre for Industrial Learning ee ee ee can be derived either between the middle connection and an outside connection (phase voltage), or between two outside connections (line voltage). The voltage between two outside connections is 1.73 times the armature (phase) voltage. This type of connection is commonly found in commercial/industrial applications where 120 volt single-phase is derived between center to outside connections, and 208 single- or three-phase is derived between the outer connections (U.S. and Canada). The center ‘connection point is grounded to provide the neutral side of the single-phase connections. In heavy industrial applications, the phase voltages in the U.S. are commonly supplied at 277 volts and the line voltage is 480 volts. In Canada, phase voltages are commonly 347 volts with line voltage of 600 volts. Residential power in the U.S. and Canada is single-phase usually at — elther 116 or 208 volts. e Transformers Transformers provide the main advantage for the use of alternating current for power systems. They provide a relatively simple means for increasing or decreasing AC voltage. With the use of transformers, voltages may be “stepped up” for transmission over long distances, and ‘stepped down” to suitable levels at the point of use. Welding transformers are typically “step down" transformers. Transformers consist of two coils Figure 2.20: Three-Phase Source Connections which function on the principle of mutual inductance (Figure 2.21). ‘An AC source is connected to the primary coll of the transformer (Figure 2.21). An AC current flows in the primary coil as determined by its inductance, producing an altemating magnetic field inside the coil. The magnetic field is coupled to the secondary coll by the iron core. The alternating magnetic field inside the secondary induces a voltage around its turns, creating a voltage across the secondary coil. The secondary voltage is determined by the ratio of secondary tums to primary turns. Voltage can thus be transformed from one level to another. Little power is lost in the transformer, thus RMS voltage times current at the secondary is only slightly less than RMS voltage times current at the primary. The small amount of power lost in the transformer ‘occurs due to the resistance of windings and “eddy” currents induced in the iron core. ‘The voltage generated in the secondary coil can also be expressed by the following equation: Vp = 6 x (flux density) x (area of cross-section) x (frequency f) x Np Cis a coefficient related to core materialpee eet nea eee eee ere gee Gooderham Centre for Industrial Learning A primary design consideration for a tron *conwt Magna Fx transformer relates to the frequency of the AC to be transformed. In essence, the inductance of the primary coil must be large enough that current drawn when there is no load on the transformer is small compared to its design current. At high frequency, the inductance is smaller with the same impedance. Thus transformer size decreases as the design frequency increases. Also, transformers normally are designed with the primary and secondary coils together rather than eS separate as depicted in Figure 2.21. Me=QINV, Mh=ViL Transformer Taps L=Q/N)h Transformers are often supplied with Figure 2.21: Transformers taps that allow the transformer primary and secondary configurations to be adjusted. Taps provide connections to the transformer windings and when needed, intermediate points in the windings (Figure 2.22). The principle of step up or down relates to the “turns ratio” of the primary ‘and secondary windings. If the secondary coil has one half the number of tums of conductor that the primary has, the voltage will be reduced by one haif (step down transformer). ‘The opposite is also true and for any combination of tums ratio's in between. Primary taps are used to adapt the input of the transformer device to different AC line voltages while resulting in the same secondary voltage. A welding power source may have its primary connected to 600V, 460V, 230V or even 110V. The primary winding must have the correct connections at various numbers of tums to create the appropriate step down ratio for output voltage. Common industrial welding power sources require less than 80V open circuit for operation. Primary taps are usually fixed electrical connections. The conductors of the secondary windings of a welding power source will be larger than the Primary. primary windings because of higher current Taps handling. (high amperage/low voltage output). ‘Secondary taps ate used to allow the output v voltage of the secondary to be selected. For i instance, a center tap will produce only one-half the voltage of the full secondary. Secondary taps may be fixed electrical connections, or may — be in the form of switching that allows secondary voltage to be selected conveniently by a user. Figure 2.22: Transformer Taps ‘ 35Gooderham Centre for Industrial Learning OH ‘Secondary taps are sometimes used to provide adjustment ‘of the power source output voltage, or voltage range. The more modern variation of the tapped secondary voltage control system is the sliding contact secondary. (Figure 2.23). The outside of the secondary coil is lightly ‘sanded to allow electrical contact between a brush and the coll. A mechanical system usually operated by a crank handle slides the brush along the secondary coil, changing the tums ratio and therefore the output voltage under a given load (wire feed speed). This system is commonly used for semi-automatic welding where constant voltage output is desired. A disadvantage of the system is the need for good electrical contact between the secondary coil and the sliding contactor. The sanded surface of the secondary coil can become corroded or covered in contaminants. These machines are frequently used within Solid-State Diodes De. Figure 2.24 (a): Solid-State Diodes 36 @ narrow voltage range, depending upon the electrode/shielding gas/material thickness combination ‘most commonly encountered. Poor contact occurs at the ends of the range of travel of the brush, where it seldom wipes the surface. To solve this problem, the coil must be cleaned to gently remove the surface deposits which are preventing good electrical contact. Never work on welding machines with the power connected. Only properly qualified persons should work on welding machines. Atransformer delivers AC power, but many welding processes require the use of DC power. Diodes are frequently used in combination with transformers to rectify the AC output from a transformer to provide Figure 2.24 (b): Solid-State DiodesRaa Gooderham Centre for Industrial Learning ene ndy Solid-state diodes are simple in operation. They conduct current in one direction with minimal voltage drop, but do not conduct significant current in the opposite direction. The arrow-like symbol for the diode indicates the direction of allowed current flow. Some energy is dissipated in the diode, and for high current applications provision must be made for cooling the diode by mounting onto a heat sink. A diode performs like a check valve in a flow system - allowing flow in only one direction (Figure 2.24). Rectification of AC Solid-state diodes allow rectification or conversion of AC to DC. A hall-wave rectifier uses one rectifying diode to produce a single polarity DC as shown in Figure 2.25. This pulsating type of waveform has little practical use, but four diodes can be connected into a rectifier bridge to produce a full-wave rectified waveform, which includes both cycles of the AC. Three-phase AC can also be full-wave rectified with a six diode bridge to produce a much smoother OC output. The DC power produced in this manner is not ‘smooth (as a battery) but has a “ripple” effect. Ripple is the variation in the voltage which results after rectification. Itis usually desirable to have as litle ripple as possible for most uses of the rectified voltage, Rectified three-phase has much less ripple than rectified single-phase. The ripple effect is shown in Figure 2.25. Diodes designed for rectification applications are called rectifying diodes v oF just rectifiers. Betore silicon diodes o were perfected, rectification was + accomplished with selenium rectifiers. 7 ‘These were more cumbersome, finned vy 7 components, often found in vintage 4 60's and 60'S electrical equipment. ~ ‘Halt-Wave single Phase input Figure 2.25: ‘Three Rectification of AC Phase InputGooderham Centre for Industrial Learning Section 3: Characteristics of Welding Arcs Welding arcs are a type of electrical discharge, or electrical current flow in a gas, which is characterized by low voltage and high current. The observation of electrical arcs was common in the early days of experimentation with electricity. Arcs were usually a nuisance, occurring at electrical contacts when circuits were disconnected. Arcing of contacts causes their rapid deterioration and electrical circuits are designed to avoid arcing. As arcs were better understood, it became possible to create arcs under controlled conditions and develop applications for their use. Carbon electrodes were intitally used for commercial lighting, producing the so-called carbon arc,. The first arc welding process utilized a carbon arc and carbon arcs are still used in welding today but have largely been replaced by arcs operating with ‘other electrode materials like tungsten, steel, or aluminum. An arc is a directional, highly concentrated heat source well suited to making a weld. ‘The purpose of this section is to provide an understanding of the physical nature of the welding arc, how it operates, and how its characteristics are used for different welding processes. Conduction of Current in Solids and Gases Electrical current is readily conducted in metals because electrons are in a free state. In essence, atoms are in intimate contact and can share electrons in a manner which actually allows some electrons to exist unattached to any atom. These free electrons can be imagined to be moving randomly at high speed, bouncing off the atoms in the wire. There are a very large number of free electrons in metals. For instance, a 1 mm cube of copper contains about 1020 free electrons. The free electrons are available to move instantly and produce current flow in response to the application of even the smaliest electrical potential applied between end points of the conductor. Remember that since the electrons have a negative charge, they actually move in the opposite direction to conventional current flow (Figure 3.1). Wo can think of electrons in a wire as being like water in @ pipe; when water enters one end of a full pipe, water immediately comes out at Figure 3.1: Conduction of Current In Solids and Gases the other end. 38 nae De adGooderham Centre for Industrial Learning Normally electricity cannot be conducted through a gas. The atoms of a gas exist separately, and all of the electrons of an atom are tightly bound to its nucieus. Any atom of a gas can become @ carrier of electricity by stripping it of one of its electrons - a process called “ionization”. lonization onization of an atom in a gas occurs when a sufficient amount of energy is imparted to the atom to “break off" an electron, creating a free electron and a positively charged nucleus (ion), The creation of these charged particles leads to the possibilty of current conduction (Figure 3.2). Ionization Potentials of Gi id Neutral Vapours:. nee Atom Free He 24.6 0V Electron Ar 1 ‘ N15 Ares Fe 7.9eV 7 Ionization Na 43eV Al 6.00 Free Electron with Energy > lonization Potential Figure 3. nization ‘The ionization potential of an element is the amount of energy that must be imparted to the atom in order to create an ionization. The energy for ionization is usually imparted by collision of an already free electron with an atom. The free electron must have a kinetic energy greater than the ionization potential of the atom it impacts. The ionizing electron’s energy is usually gained from acceleration in an applied electric field (potential). Most gases, in fact, have a very small amount of ionization already present which helps the establishment of a conductive path when a sufficient voltage is applied. Ionization potential is measured in electron volts (ev), sometimes referred to only as volts. For instance, the ionization potential of argon is 15.8 electron volts. The unit of electron volts Is convenient from a physical standpoint since it expresses the number of volts that an electron would have to be accelerated through to achieve that much kinetic energy. If an electron were accelerated in a vacuum between two electrodes with a voltage difference of 15.8 volts, it would pick-up enough kinetic energy to ionize an argon atom. 39' ' : ; ' : Gooderham Centre for Industrial Learning | Atoms with higher ionization potentials are more difficult to ionize. Inert gas atoms generally have relatively high ionization potentials (10 electron volts and higher). Metal atoms, which occur as metal vapors in the arc, generally have low ionization potentials (less than 10 electron volts). Metal vapors thus lend themselves to ionization in the arc, In metal arc processes low ionization potential additives are made to fluxes and coatings to promote arc initiation and improve are stability. Electrical Breakdown ‘A gas can become a conductor under the unusual condition of so-called electrical breakdown. Electrical breakdown of a gas results from the application of an electrical potential or voltage across the gas. The voltage is applied to the gas via metal conductors, or electrodes, placed in the gaseous media. A gas ‘will break down electrically and be able to conduct current when sufficient voltage is applied. The minimum voltage needed to create a conductive path is called “sparking voltage". Sparking voltage increases with the pressure of the gas, and the distance or gap between the electrodes. The sparking voltage is also dependant on the electrodes’ composition, surface finish and especially the shape. Flat or slightly curved electrode surfaces generally require more voltage for breakdown compared to sharply pointed electrodes. Sparking voltages are typically 1000's to 10,000's of volts. Larger gaps require proportionally higher voltages, as do higher pressures. Arcs therefore require higher voltages to initiate with wider gaps and at higher pressures (¢.g., underwater). The composition of a gas media influences the voltage required to initiate the arc. Higher voltage is required to initiate an arc in helium than in argon due to helium’s higher ionization potential. Welding power sources are designed to initiate arcs in several ways, Jumping an air gap by sheer current would require 1000's of volts - it would be far too dangerous. Initiating the arc is usually accomplished in two ways; impose a momentary high voltage, low current surge accross the gap or by “striking” the electrode against the work surface, essentially producing a very short gap. Initiating the arc is more difficult than sustaining it. Conduction of Current in the Arc ‘After breakdown of the gas In the arc gap Is created, current flow through the gas commences (Figure 3.3). The conductive path will widen as more electrons are emitted and collide with gas atoms in the gap. Electrons are much lighter than ions therefore they pick up speed and energy more rapidly when propelled through the gap by the applied voltage. This is accompanied by intense resistive heating of the gas through collisions with the accelerating electrons, and the gas temperature rises. As the gas heats up, thermal ionization maintains and produces more ionization, which reduces resistance in the arc and current flow increases. Thermal ionization is additional ionization created by collisions of ionized particles with neutral atoms causing the neutral atom to lose an electron. See Figure 3.3. oe 35 se aeste fald ered oe fee eeeT Seen ee ee eee eee) eae If the source supplying the voltage is capable of suitably delivering the rising current demanded by the ate, then a stable mode of current flow is reached which is called an arc. At atmospheric pressure, this means that the power source must be able to deliver tens to hundreds of amperes at several tons of volts. If the power source cannot deliver current under these conditions, then only an instantaneous spark occurs and the arc will not be sustained. ‘The temperature of gasses in the arc typically tise to 10,000K and higher as the atc develops. These temperatures are considerably higher than that of any other type of heat source, being well above temperatures achieved in conventional resistive heaters or open flames. The very high temperatures are necessary to sustain the ionization process. The hot, ionized gas of the arc is sometimes referred to as a plasma. Electrons are emitted from the negative electrode (cathode) travel through the arc and are reabsorbed by the positive electrode (anode). The electrons colide with neutral gas atoms creating additional free electrons and positively charged gas ions. Polarity and Current Flow Welding arcs are usually operated on direct current (DC), with fixed polarity or voltage between the electrodes. The welding electrode, or electrode, is either positive or negative, and the work lead, or work, is of opposite polarity. If the electrode is operated with negative polarity relative to the work, this is called DC Electrode Negative or DCEN. The older terminology was Straight Polarity or DCSP. In this case, electrons carry the electrical current from the electrode to the work. The electrode is the cathode and the work is the anode. The polarity can be reversed making the welding electrode positive, this is called DC Electrode Positive or DCEP, also known as Reverse Polarity or DCRP. In this case, electrons carry the current from the workpiece to the welding electrode. ‘The work is the cathode of the arc (emits electrons), and the electrode is the anode of the arc (receives electrons). The difference in electrical Gooderham Centre for Industrial Learning aa a Cathode - Figure 3.3: Conduction of Current in the Arc at| Gooderham Centre for Industrial Learning TY processes at the anode and cathode influence the performance of the arc relative to its welding application, Some arc welding procasses are operated predominately with a certain polarity (GTAW — electrode negative, GMAW — electrode positive), and some can be operated with either polarity (GMAW ~ electrode negative or positive, depending on coating composition). Alternating current or AC is used in some process variations and the polarity alternates between electrode negative and electrode positive. The AC voltage is usually derived directly from the AC line, thus resulting in a 60 Hertz rate of alternation. In more sophisticated inverter power supplies higher frequencies may be utilized. Alterating current ‘may be used for simplicity and economy in equipment, or for the special effects of altemating polarities. Are Voltage-Amperage (V-l) Characteristics ‘The graphical method of presenting voltage-current characteristics is very useful for the study of welding arcs. The voltage-current characteristic of an arc can be found by measuring are current and voltage for different power source settings, while holding arc length constant. This is simple to perform with a ‘tungsten arc - more difficult for arcs in consumable electrode processes. The resulting curve is shown in Figure 3.4, A resistor, which obeys Ohm's law, would appear as a straight line. Arcs differ greatly from the linear characteristic of the ideal resistor. The nonlinear characteristic of the arc makes graphical V-I analysis of arc circuits helpful in understanding their operation. W)_ 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 Figure 3.4: Arc V+ Characteristics At low current the curve is drooping. The characteristic rises to a high voltage at zero current because of the voltage required to create a conductive path across the gap. At intermediate current levels the curve is quite flat, almost operating at a constant voltage independent of current. The voltage to operate the arc drops with increasing current to around 100 amperes and then rises at a slow rate. This constant voltage tendency of the arc operating at intermediate current levels is one thing that makes it an unusual electrical load (within typical voltage ranges and arc lengths). At high current the arc demands increasingly greater voltage to remain stable. 42 D eatervue Gooderham Centre for Industrial Learning Process Polarity There is a significant difference in the way in which electrons are generated between non-consumable electrode processes such as GTAW, and consumable electrode processes such as GMAW. The GTAW process is usually operated with the electrode negative. Electrons are easily emitted from the solid ‘tungsten electrode, and transfer energy to the weld pool as they condense at the workpiece surface. Gas tungsten arc welding does not operate well in the electrode positive mode. Electrons transferred from the workpiece impart large amounts of energy to the electrode tip which, tends to cause melting. However, the GMAW process operates best on electrode positive as the process tends to be unstable in ‘electrode negative mode. Electrode positive produces a stable arc with good penetration (See Module 4). Arc welding processes are operated in alternating current mods. The simplest welding power sources are step-down transformers with no rectification mechanism - a functional and inexpensive power source. Altemating current presents @ problem for maintaining arc stability since the arc tends to extinguish as the power fiow reverses between each half cycle. Aside from a momentary lack of current flow through the arc, there are differences betwoen the emmissivity of the tungsten and the workpiece. ‘Tungsten, especially tungsten electrodes alloyed with oxides of readily ionizable elements (thoria, ceria, fanthana), much more easily release their electrons to the arc stream than the workpiece. This creates ‘a momentary “hesitation” in electron flow as the polarity reverses and the work becomes the negative pole. A consumable electrode alternating current arc (SMAW) required the development of additives to electrode coverings which provide arc stabilization. Coating additions of easily ionizable materials ‘enhance the persistence of ionized gas particles as the voltage passes through zero. ‘An advantage of AC is that It produces heating effects in between that of DCEN and DCEP. Alternating current also lessens the occurrence of magnetic arc blow at high welding currents, and is therefore useful in high deposition applications of SMAW and SAW. AC is also used to great benefit in the GTA and Plasma (PA) welding of aluminum and other similar materials which form a refractory oxide. During the electrode negative cycle, heat and penetration into the material being welded is promoted. Electrode positive provides oxide removal by cathodic action at the workpiece. Altemating current GTA welding is commonly used for aluminum (See Module 4). More advanced AC machines provide a square rather than a sine wave AC, to improve arc re-ignition capability. Variable polarity of AC allows for adjustment of the duration of positive versus negative cycles. Inverter based power supplies offer the potential to increase altemating current output frequency which offsets defocusing effects on the arc column.Gooderham Centre for Industrial Learning Section 4: Process Characteristics and Power Requirements Gas Tungsten Arc Welding The gas tungsten arc welding (@TAW) process uses a non-consumable tungsten-based electrode. Arc fength is either under the control of the operator or of the mechanical system in the case of mechanized welding. A constant current power supply is used, and current is set at the power supply. The arc gap Is controlled by the welder in manual welding, and by the machine in mechanized welding. Voltage across the arc is determined by the arc gap and the shape of the end of the tungsten electrode. Since current is held approximately constant, small changes in arc gap and voltage do not produce large changes in current. In practice, most power supplies have a characteristic which approximates to constant current called a “drooping” characteristic. Some modern power supplies with electronic control ‘systems are able to operate with true constant current. Plasma Are Welding ‘The plasma are welding (PAW) process Is based on constriction of a tungsten arc through an orifice in ‘copper nozzle (See Module 4). The torch is designed with a small chamber surrounding the electrode ‘where the lonized gas is prevented from expanding freely. This causes a superheating effect and the ‘superheated plasma is directed out of the chamber through an orffice creating a plasma ‘jet’. Because of the jet that is produced, the process is less affected by arc length changes. The increased plasma pressure and energy allows the process to operate in the keyhole mode, where the plasma jet creates ‘an open “keyhole” completely through the joint. The process Is normally operated in the transferred aro mode, where the arc is formed between the electrode and workpiece, and is constricted by the orifice. In this mode the power requirements for the main arc are very similar to those for GTAW, and GTAW power ‘sources can in fact be used to supply the power for the plasma arc. However, in order to start the process, a pilot arc at low current/high voltage is created between the electrode and the copper nozzle. ‘This provides an ionization source, which enables the main arc to initiate when the circuit between the electrode and work piece is completed - the arc is thus transferred from the electrode to the workpiece. A separate power supply can be used to maintain the pilot arc, and a high voltage/high frequency or impulse start is used to enable the pilot arc to Initiate. Systems of this type are available as “add-on” units to convert a GTAW system to plasma welding. Moder control technology allows a single power supply to be used both for the pilot are and for the main arc. Keyhole welding requires welding currant in excess of 100 amps. However, plasma welding can be performed in melt-in mode and provides a very precise source of heat for welding small components at very low current, from 0.1 to 15 amps. This variant of the process is called micro plasma or nesdlearo. At these low current levels, a transistor-based design is often used with electronic control to provide true constant current characteristics. 5 1Gooderham Centre for Industrial Learning wapuveuuveuuuuuouuE Jee vee pyvevveuuuuuuuuNEULY Gas Metal Arc Welding In the early development of gas metal arc welding (GMAW), constant current power sources were used. However, with a constant current output, a change in contact tip to work distance will also produce @ cchange in arc length for a constant electrode feed rate. As a result, the arc will either bum back (fusing the wire to the contact tip) or stub into the workpiece. To avoid this problem, voltage controlled wire feeders were developed, where the wire feed speed increases if the voltage increases (indicating a longer arc) in order to hold arc length constant. It was then found that a constant voltage. power supply could be used with the GMAW process. With a constant speed wire feeder, the slope of the power supply acts to compensate for changes in contact tip to work distance - the system is thus self compensating, and does not require feedback of the arc voltage: to the wite feeder. ‘The GMAW process can be operated in several modes: In the short circuit mode, the wire intermittently touches the workpiece, and a short circuit current flows at zero voltage, unti the wire is melted, detached and the arc is re-estabiished. In this mode of operation, either changes in slope or other controls are used to achieve an appropriate short circuit current: high enough to re-establish the arc, but not so high that the wire melts explosively producing excessive spatter. The rate of change of current is also important in controling the performance of the arc. Rate of current change is controlled by adjusting the amount of inductance in Series with the power source, (either as a stepped or continuously variable inductance). Electronically controlled output of the power supplies may use either inductance or electronic contro! to adjust current rise rate, At higher curreriis, the GMAW process operates in the spray transfer mode where an arc is maintained continuously, and metal is transferred as droplets from the wire across the arc to the workpiece. The slope of the volt ampere curve, and the rate of current rise are again important to achieve stable arcs with minimal spatter, and must be matched to the wire type, diameter and shielding gas used. Flux Cored Are Welding The tux cored arc welding (FCAW) uses a tubular electrode which contains powdered flux, and may be applied with or without shielding gas depending on the flux formulation. The electrical characteristics of the process are in very similar manner to GMAW and essentially the same equipment is used. Submerged Arc Welding ‘The submerged arc welding (SAW) process can be used manually, with wire diameters in the range of 4.6 to 2 mm, and current in the range of 250 to 500A. It is more commonly used in mechanized applications, with large wire diameter (4 to 4.8 mm) and current in the range 475 to 900 amps. Although two small wires fed simultaneously from the same welding head is a commmon variation. Several different types of power sources can be used with submerged arc welding. Constant voltage DC power sources are available with rated output from 400 to 1500 amps. A 100% duty cycle power supply is needed for mechanized application. The smaller power supplies can be the same as those for GMAW and FCAW. Constant voltage power supplies produce self regulating arc lengths, and are used with a constant-speed wire feeder. Voltage is set by adjusting the control on the power supply, and the wire feed speed setting determines the current which will be drawn. 7 45« Gooderham Centre for industrial Learning Constant currant power supplies can be used, both DC and AC, but they are not self regulating, so they must be used in conjunction with a voltage sensing variable wire feed speed control which adjusts wire feed rate in response to changes in arc voltage. In this system, the power source outputs steady current, and arc voltage is maintained constant by the regulation of wire feed speed. Modem AC power supplies, used for GTAW, deliver square wave AC waveforms to avoid arc re-ignition problems as the current goes through zero while reversing. AC welding is most commonly used for high current applications, over 1000 amps, where arc blow can be a problem, and for multiwire applications to prevent arc interaction. Shielded Metal Arc Welding Either DC electrode positive, lectrode negative, or AC power sources may be used for shielded metal arc welding (SMAW). Transformer rectifier machines often have a switch to change between DC and AC welding. Portable constant current power supplies often have a selectable range of sloped output. Steep ‘slope minimizes the change in current from changes in arc length - constant current. In some situations a flatter slope is used to provide some change in current when arc length changes. Skilled welders can use this effect to achieve control over the current and hence the amount of metal being deposited. This is a common preference when manuallly welding pipe joints. The table below shows a summary of the power type requirements for each welding process. Constant Voltage | Constant Current Welding Dc De aC Process (Flat Characteristic) (Drooping (Drooping Characteristic) Characteristic) GTAW No Yes Yes PAW No Yes Special applications GMAW Yes Yes ‘Special applications FCAW Yes : Yes ‘Special applications SAW Yes Yes Yes ‘MAW No Yes Yes Table 4.1: Summary of Process Requirements Se ee a We. FF aw Gooderham Centre for Industrial Learning fee eee Ae eee eee Ae ve ae eee \ Section 5: Arc Welding Equipment Design Early Power Source Technologies Historically most welding was accomplished manually, where the arc was controlled by the welder. Power sources had to be the constant currant, or drooper variety because it is nearly impossible to control a constant voltage arc, manually. It was also necessary to provide for variation of the current so the welder could adjust the amount of heat and metal deposition. Current control required the design of special power source circuits, the technology of which has advanced gradually with time and now dramatically over the last decade, The development of constant voltage power sources for automatically fed electrode processes has experienced similar developments, but over a shorter span of time and technology. ‘An arc is an unusual sort of electrical load. For most purposes the voltage supplied to electrical devices is designed to be more or less constant regardless of current demand. Conversely, an arc requires comparatively higher voltage to facilitate striking but, only low voltage in operation. Therefore the term drooping output; where voltage drops rapidly with increasing current flow. In Figure 6.1, the arc voltage demand drops quickly as current increases and rises only slightly even with large increases in current. Heat Dissipation Figure 5.1: Early Power Source Technology Using Batteries and a Resistor The earliest welding power supplies used lead-acid storage batteries, with a variable resistance placed in series to provide this output slope control (@.g., traceable to the original invention of arc welding in the 1880's), Banks of lead-acid batteries were used, charged by a DC generator, and provided direct current for carbon arc operation. A bank of resistors was used to provide slope and a rheostat type control of welding current. The resistance produces the output slope or droop of the power source. As the resistance is increased, the voltage drop across the resistor is reduced and so is the current flow in the output circuit. Either the amount of resistance, or the number of batteries connected in series, was used to control the amount of current. More batteries or less resistance increased the current output. ' 47: ' : Gooderham Centre for Industrial Learning A major disadvantage of the use of resistance to control current is poor efficiency. A large amount of ower Is dissipated in the series resistance fo no useful purpose. If the batteries supply 80 volts, and a drop of 20 volts occurs across the arc, 75% of the power will be dissipated in the serlas resistance, and only 25% is used in the arc. A constant current source requires high open circuit voltage both for arc starting, and to achieve a drooping output charactersitic. Commercial usage of arc welding quickly shifted away from this type of power supply, DC Generators Early developers found that specially designed DC generators could be used to create arcs directly. In Such designs some field windings in the generator are put in series with the welding output. ‘The ‘windings callod angcted such as to decrease the magnetic field of the generator as output current Increases (60- called series bucking windings). This causes the output voltage of the generator to drop with Increase In Gurrent, or to droop (Figure 5.2). This design accomplished droop without large, wasteful resistors and ‘thus with much greater efficiency. Direct current generators have improved in design and are stil used 85 sources of welding power. Generators of early vintage were driven either by engines in portable applications, or by AC electrical motors in shop applications. The latter ware called motor-generator or MG-sets. Modem DC generators are used primarily in mobile applications with diesel or gasoline Fleld windings to reduce ‘exciting magnetic flald Figure 5.2: DC Generators Motor-generators are not widely manufactured for welding power supplies due to thelr high cost and {nereased maintenance requirements, but are stil in use in many operations. They are strongly favoured by certain industries, especially for pipe welding. The preference by the wolderroperator is due te the ' 48 % RAR aa AA aA Wad ee cote ert aGooderham Centre for Industrial Learning Disadvantages of motor-generators are that they are bulky and heavy, have many moving parts which are prone fo wear and require frequent maintenance, and are noisy. Figure 6.3: Engine Driven AC/DC. Alternator Type Welding Machine (Photo courtesy of Lincoln Electric Co.) Welding Transformers The use of AC utility power for the direct production of an arc rather than with an elactric motor/generator ‘set requires a transformer. A transformer (Figure 5.4) is an altemating current device used to convert high voltage line power to safer, useable low voltage levels at the higher current levels needad to sustain a welding arc (See Section 2). This basic conversion process is accomplished with a “step down” transformer. Such a transformer utilizes a large number of tums of relatively small size wire on the primary (high voltage/low current) side, and a lesser number of tums of larger size wire on the secondary (low voltage/high current) side. ‘The resulting output voltage is a function of the “tums ratio” of primary/secondary windings. Magnetic flux is coupled from the primary to the secondary windings of the transformer by a massive iron core. The transformer is the central element and, to a great extent, dictates the size and weight of the power source. ' Figure 5.4: Welding Transformer (Courteay of Hawkes Electrle Arc)Gooderham Centre for Industrial Learning {n the simplest of designs, a welding power source consists only of a transformer to provide an AC secondary output with suitable capacity to operate a welding arc. the sloped output characteristic is ‘accomplished by the manner in which the transformer is wound and the size and shape of the core. ‘Older terminology sometimes refers to a welding power source as just a “welding transformer’. Modem welding power sources are much more than just transformers, although it is the most fundamental ‘element of even the latest of welding machines. Figure 5.5 shows a transformer-based AC welding ‘machine for SMAW welding, with rated output of 225 amps at 20% duty cycle and 100 amps at 100% duty cycle. The crank handle indicates that this is a mechanically controlled transformer. There are several means of controlling the output of a transformer, and the simplest method is to change the etficency of ‘coupling’ between primary and secondary. Moving the primary coils away from the secondaries reduces the number of linas of flux which pass through the secondary coils - reducing output by changing the effectiveness ‘of coupling. The same effect can be created by moving part of the core to increase or decrease the strength of the magnetic field coupled to the secondary. Figure 5.5: Transformer-Based AC Welding Machine for SMAW (Photo courteny of Millor Electric Manufacturing Company) Transformer Rectifier Technology A rectifier is a device for converting altemating current to direct current. The development of solid-state rectifiers, first using selenium diodes and then silicon diodes, was a significant development for the use of AC transformer technology since it allowed a transformer based power supply to output direct current. (Without a rectifier, transformer welders can only produce AC current.) In general, altemating current ‘results in inferior welding performance for most welding processes (excluding SAW) compared to that with DC. This power source technology is referred to as a “transformer-rectifier". All modem welding machines utilize these basic components in their circuit design (Figure 5.6). Conventional transformer- rectifiers, rectify AC current on the secondary side of the transformer, at lower voltage and higher current. The reduction in voltage must be accomplished prior to rectification since the transformer is strictly an AC device. (Only outputs when the magnetic field is changing). Rectification can be applied to single-phase AC to give a single-phase type of rectified waveform, Such single-phase transtormer-rectifier machines are often supplied as AC/DC machines, where the rectifiers can be by-passed to allow AC to also be delivered. disadvantage is that single-phase rectified DC is -very ripply, and does not produce the most desirable DC arc. This effect can be reduced by adding capacitors int the output circu 50 atc tse Pore ere ee iri eee7 Gooderham Centre for Industrial Learning Rectified three-phase is preferable for the operation of DC arcs. The overlapping of the phases eliminates most of the ripple and produces a more uniform and stable arc. (See Section 2) Also, the input line current is reduced since it is divided between the three-phases. ACIDC Power Source Figure 5.6: Transformer Rectifier Technology Silicon Controlled Rectifiers (SCR) - Thyristors ‘A conventional diode placed in a circuit allows passage of current in one direction only. Anytime a voltage is applied in the correct direction, the diode will allow the passage of current.(see Section 2) A silicon-controlled-rectifier (SCR) or thyristor operates slightly differently. The device still behaves as a diode - allowing passage of current ih one direction only ~ but must be switched on to allow current to flow. A thyristor Is activated by a signal called a “gate pulse” and will conduct current in the direction of its bias until the AC half cycle is complete. At the completion of the half cycle, voltage drops to zero and then reverses direction (Figure 5.7). , , > ) ) d ) , ? ) ) ) ) , Figure 5.7: Pancake Type SCR(white lead is the gate, White Lead red lead is DC power)Gooderham Centre for Industrial Learning OF HY {n the opposite direction the thyristor acts like a diode and does not allow the passage of current. Each time a new cycle starts the thyristor must be “gated or fired” again to allow passage of current, This switching or gating feature allows for output control, which is adjustable 120 times per second (line frequency 60). For example, ifthe thyristor is gated or triggered part way through a half cycle, then it will ‘conduct to the end of the half cycle (Figure 5.8). This allows the time of forward conduction (current flow) to be controlled, and therefore the average output of a rectifier bridge. SCR's require special control circuits to provide the trigger or gating signals between the negative terminal and the SCR gate. The SCR therefore acts both as a rectifier to generate DC, and as a control system to regulate power output. Figure 5.8 shows the operation of a half wave SCR rectifier controling voltage. | eee fae eee ed Latelin Cycle Early in Cycle ° “ Less Voltage| Mord Volt Figure 5.8: SCR Rectification Silicon Controlled Rectifier Technology The use of silicon controlled rectifier (SCR) technology for power control smerged in the 1970's and was widely used through the 1980's and into the 90's. Feedback circuits are added to send a signal to a printed circuit board. The control board then uses this information to adjust the firing circuit in order to provide control of the desired output current (or voltage) and V-I characteristic (Figure 5.9).ret iteeeee Gooderham Centre for Industrial Learning 3 ac Line Vottage| Figure 5.9: Silicon Controlled Rectifier Technology SCR controls have the advantage of being very energy efficient because the diodes are either on or off (conducting or not conducting) - operating like a switch. The amount of time they are on relative to the time they are off, controls the power that is passed, on average. A disadvantage of SCR Control is the very choppy output waveform, with times during the cycle when no voltage is output. For this reason, such control is most suitable with three-phase power sources where ripple frequency is higher and cycles shorter. This rippled output is usually compensated for with banks of capacitors (Figure 5.10). A capacitor stores energy and then outputs when voltage drops - essentially helping to fil in when voltage output would be zero. Figure 5.10: Capacitor Bank (Courtesy of Hawkes Electric Arc)Gooderham Centre for Industrial Learning A related disadvantage is that control can only be applied from one cycle to the next, Once fired an SCR ‘cannot be tured off. The flow of current will continue until conduction in the SCR stops naturally at the ‘end of the AC half cycle. Control adjustments can be made by an electronic feedback system every 120th second for single-phase or every 360th of a second for three-phase. This may seem fast, but is relatively slow on the time scale of occurrences in the welding arc, especially when considering shorting- circuiting and other metal transfer mechanisms. Figure 5.11 shows a thytistor-based welding machine with constant voltage DC output for GMAW, FCAW, and SAW up to 460 amps at 100% duty cycle or 550 amps at 60% duty cycle. Figure 5.11: Thyristor-Based CV DC Welder for GMAW, FCAW, and SAW (Photo courtesy of ESAB Walding and Cutting Producte) Transistor Circuits ‘Transistors are solid-state devices that control the flow of electrical current via a control terminal input (Figure 5.12). A so-called base circuit passes a small current between the base and emitter of the transistor. Given that a sufficient voltage is applied from a source between the collector and emitter of the transistor, the current passed by the transistor is proportional to the base current. The proportionality factor, , Is the current gain of the transistor, and is typically much greater than ‘one. A small current in the base circuit can control a large current in the collector to emitter circuit which provides the primary path for welding current or output. The transistor is much like a proportional valve for the contro! of current in a circuit.: Gooderham Centre for Industrial Learning Figure 5.12: Transistor Circuits In the most basic application of a transistor, the transistor is placed in series between an electrical source and an electrical load as shown in Figure 5.12. When the current is less than the maximum, there is a surplus voltage drop across the transistor, and the transistor temperature rises as it dissipates the excess hheat associated with the excess voltage times circuit current. In this lingar mode of operation, the transistor is not very energy efficient except at maximum or minimum current, but is very useful for DC_ power control applications. Transistor Controlled Machines Transistors emerged as a practical method of controlling the output of welding machines in the 1970's, in parallel with the emergence of SCR controlled machines, and with some similarities in technology. The main idea is to put transistors in series with the DC output side of the power supply, downstream from conventional rectifiers (Figure 5.13). Input Command Figure 5.13: Transistor Controlled Machine * Multiple parallel transistors ‘So-called linear type designs utilize the transistors as electronically variable resistance. Essentially, the greater the base terminal control current, the less the resistance of the transistor in the circuit. This produces an effect identical to the series or ballast resistance of early welding machines, with the same inefficiency. Such designs require many transistors operating in paraltel, with water cooling, to provide reliable operation at the large currents used for welding. The advantage is that the current through the transistors can be precisely and rapidly controlled with a feedback circuit. Such machine designs aro primarily limited to applications for lower current capacity, constant current machines for precision GTA welding applications. . Switching Circuits The transistor can also be used in a “switching mode"to switch the voltage to a load on and off at a rapid rate. The current is switched between a maximum value and a low or zero value. Power loss due to resistive heating is minumized and the system becomes quite energy efficient. Power to the load can be 7 55Gooderham Centre for Industrial Learning Sra naa OTST ST a cI annette controlled by adjusting the amount of on time to off time, Two systems are used; frequency modulation and pulse width modulation. Frequency modulation is where a fixed pulse width is used and the frequency varied to control the average on time, Pulse width modulation is where the frequency of pulsing is held fixed and the relative amount of on to off time is varied. Because a transistor can be switched at such a high speed, there is plenty of time to contro! output by either of the above methods. Switching is done at a much higher rate than line frequency (60Hz) to minimize the effect on the arc and maximize the speed that control can be ‘accomplished with feedback. Switching frequencies of this type of machine are typically 1000's of hertz, to over 10,000 hertz although some pulse width modulation systems operate much above the audible range. An annoyance with some machines is the audible sound they emit at the switching frequency when operating the arc (the arc converts some energy into sound waves). The switching regulator, designs were not widely used, but can be considered to be fore runners to modem inverter type welding machine circuits which are dominating current power source technology. Inverter Technology Inversion is the opposite of rectification. Inversion converts direct current into altemating current. Invertor is the electronic component which carries out this operation (Figure 5.14). Welding power source designs have rapidly evolved towards inverter technology in the recent years. Inverters utlize a ‘switching type of regulation, mostly utilizing transistor type devices. The key difference with inverters is that switching is done on the high voltage primary side of the welding transformer, rather than on the more conventional secondary side. This has several advantages. One advantage is that currents are lower on the primary side, and thus less heat dissipation occurs in the transistors. This is at the expense of switching higher voltages (peak of the AC primary levels), compared to lower voltages on the secondary side, a disadvantage of the system. Since switching must operate on DC voltage, this requires that rectification be applied directly to the incoming AC prior to switching. The rectifier, placed in the primary side of the transformer therefore sees the transient voltage spikes which regularly occur in the supply power. Blown rectifiers were a common problem in early designs, especially in Canada where primary voltage is 600vims. The technology of modem solid-state switching transistors has steadily ‘advanced in the providing of the required reliability and some manufacturers have opted to include protection devices called MOV’s to shunt the voltage spike around the rectifier. The overwhelming advantage is that transformation to welding voltage is accomplished with a transformer operating at the high switching frequency (10,000's of hertz), rather than the tow line frequency (60 Hz). Transformers designed for higher frequencies require much less iron core and windings than those designed for low frequency. The result is a many fold savings in weight and size of the step-down transformer. Inverter designs can thus be very small and efficient. This is at the expense of considerably more sophistication and complexity of electronic design. This is readily seen from the ‘amount of circuitry inside an inverter as compared to conventional power source designs. However, the advantages well outweigh the disadvantages, and inverter designs are beginning to be predominant.Gooderham Centre for Industrial Learning Solld-atate switch for see es ) 4 high frequency onloff switching Transformer designed ; for high frequency ) ) ' ) a i) ) ) ) ) ) ) ! py ) Control Signal fo ) Desired Current or Voltage (current sensing) ) Figure 5.14: Inverter Technology Figure 5.15 shows an inverter-based welding machine which can operate in both CC and CV modes, and can be used for GMAW, pulsed GMAW, SMAW, GTAW, pulsed GTAW, and FCAW with a rated output of 450 amps at 100% duty cycle and 565 amps at 60% duty cycle. Figure 5.15: Inverter-Based CV/CC Welding Machine 1 (Photo courtesy of Miller Electric Manufacturing Company) jGooderham Centre for Industrial Learning 0 Inverter Contro! Methods Either pulse or frequency modulation is used to control the amount of power that is passed. In either case, the rectified line voltage is switched on and off by a solid-state switching device. Switching frequencies are typically 10,000's of hertz. The control of the amount of power is accomplished by either varying the pulse on time or the frequency of fixed pulses (Figure 5.16). Vv v v k aa y wane o o Une v v ar ok k a | iosg, a Figure 5.16: Inverter Control Methods Control can be exhibited on a time scale of the switching frequency, which is fractions of milliseconds. ‘The switching technologies thus provide machines with the fastest time response. tt on | { ay ts is) 9 we ip) i! uo 0 0 oe. is) 1 rs) ay B) ) Eee ed ot ,inne Gooderham Centre for industrial Learning Section 6: Power Source Control Systems Manual vs. Automatically Controlled Arcs Classically, arcs are considered to be operated between fixed, non-consumable electrodes. With practical welding arcs, however, length varies either because the welding electrode is manually held, or because the electrode is melting off, or both. Control of the length of the arc is thus a significant consideration for arc welding systems. In manual welding, the welder manually manipulates feed of the elactrode to control the length of the arc. The most common examples are SMAW and GTAW. In each case the welder observes the arc, mainly its length, and manipulates the electrode in such a way as to keep the arc length constant. The welder must maintain the arc length within tight limits for the GTAW process, but the electrode is not consumed. In the SMAW process melting of the electrode by the arc causes the arc length to tend to increase. Feed of the electrode must be provided at a rate equal to its melt-off rate. This is accomplished by observation of the arc length. If the length is too long the electrode must be brought closer to the work, and visa versa. The electrode can also be fed into the arc with a motorized system. With suitable power source characteristics and control circuits, the arc length can be automatically controlled. This leads to either ‘semi-automatic or fully automatic welding systems. With semi-automatic systems, the welder still holds the weld torch, but the electrode is fed automatically through the torch. Fully automated systems control movement of the weld torch by the machine. Processes of this type are GMAW, FCAW, and SAW. Power Source Droop In the early days of arc welding, it was found that continuous, stable arcs could be maintained when source circuits had sufficient internal series resistance. Resistance in a source circuit tends to reduce the voltage delivered by the circuit as current flow increases. This can be expressed diagrammatically as @ voltage source, with a resistance in series —_gqurce or Ballast with the output terminals. Resistance Such a power source has a V-I characteristic which drops from the source voltage at zero current (the open circuit voltage), at a rate which is proportional to the resistance as current increases (Figure 6.1). T Joc VarRe Figure 6.1: Power Source DroopGooderham Centre for Industrial Learning ‘Such a power source circuit is sometimes said to have “droop”. When a resistance is added to a circuit to produce a drooping characteristic, it is sometimes called ballast resistance. (The ballast in a fluorescent lighting system serves the same purpose in stabilizing the operation of the gaseous electrical ‘conduction process in the fluorescent tube.) Constant Voltage/Constant Current ‘The most basic classification of welding power sources distinguishes them as constant voltage (CV) or constant current (CC) types. This classification corresponds to the type of V- | characteristic which the power source exhibits; how the voltage they deliver varies with the current supplied (Figure 6.2). Constant voltage sources hold the output voltage relatively constant as current draw increases. An ideal CV source holds the voltage absolutely constant. With real CV sources the voltage drops slightly as ‘current draw increases. For welding sources this is usually no more than a volt or so per 100 amperes. of output current draw. The V-I characteristic of a CV source is very close to a horizontal straight line in ‘a graphical representation. Most sources of electricity are inherently constant voltage. This includes utility power systems, common DC and AC electrical generators, batteries, and sources that convert AC line $Y voltage to DC voltage for all kinds of electrical and electronic applications. Figure 6.2: Constant Voltage/Constant Current 40 Practical CV Constant current (CC) electrical sources exhibit a significant drop im output voltage as current draw | increases. An ideal CC source Provides an absolutely constant current output, with the output voltage varying according to the load. Real CC sources generally produce some current variation. The V-I characteristic of a CC source tends to be nearly vertical in a graphical representation. Constant ‘current sources are sometimes said to have "droop" or to be “droopers”. Another term for a constant current source is “variable voltage” ot VV types because their output voltage varies. Welding source droop is typically greater than 10's of volts per hundred amperes of current. 100 200 300 400 1000's d ) ) dfee cee a cree Fa eet ee Gooderham Centre for industrial Learning CV versus CC Arc Operation The static V-I characteristic of a welding power source is important to the maintenance of a stable welding arc. The power source arc characteristics are shown in Figure 6.3, Constant output voltage sources are represented by a horizontal line on a graphical V-I characteristic. The arc characteristic also tends toward a horizontal line, the operating point is not well defined. This is particularly the case when considering that the arc length may vary causing the arc characteristic to shift up and down - or the output voltage of the power source may fluctuate slightly. In practice this means that arc current will vary erratically, with minor variation in are length, for manually held arcs. It is found to be impossible to “manually” maintain a stable, usable arc for welding with a constant voltage source. ‘currant Veralon CV ‘8) Response to Power Source Change 'b) Response to Are Length change Figure 6.3: CV vs. CC Arc Operation It can be seen that the addltion of power source slope or droop, along with raising the voltage of the source (open-circuit voltage), better defines the operating point. The steeper the slope, the better the definition of the operating point, and the less the current will vary. An ideal CC source provides the most stable operating point in this regard, Constant current sources are found to be necessary for operation of manual arcs. However, certain applications of manual welding require current variation to accompany voltage change due to arc manipulation, in particular, when performing the root pass in a pipe joint. (See Module 4) Manual Arc Control In SMAW, the welder controls the arc length by manipulating the electrode feed rate. The welder observes the arc and feeds the electrode faster to shorten the arc, and slower to lengthen the arc. The welder’s main objective is to maintain an optimum arc length. The optimum arc is usually as short as. possible to concentrate the heat, without short-circuiting and erratic metal transfer. iu etGooderham Centre for industrial Learning ‘The burn-off rate of the electrode is proportional to the arc current. Thus, with a constant current power ‘source for manual welding, the electrode burn-off rate is fixed by the current setting. The welder controls. the arc length via the feed rate of the electrode. To make the arc shorter, the welder feeds the electrode faster, such that feed rate exceeds the bum-off rate. To make the arc longer, the welder slows the electrode feed rate, such that itis less than the burn-off rate. Hand-and-eye coordination allows the arc length to be continuously maintained or adjusted by this process. Manual Arc Control Inputs To control the amount of welding heat, the primary welder control input is the welding current, which is set at the power source (Figure 6.4). For GTAW, a foot pedal is often provided to allow the welder to directly adjust the current while welding. Foot pedal controls are not found to be practical for SMAW which requires the arc be stopped for current adjustment at the machine. Current Varies Figure 6.4: Manual Arc Control Inputs ‘The welder can exhibit indirect control over the weld current by manipulating the arc length, dependent ‘on the power source characteristic. Manipulation of current is useful for allowing fine adjustment to heat input and electrode mett-off rate. The amount of control which Is possible depends on the amount of droop in the CC power source characteristic. If the droop is shallow, significant current change can be achieved via arc length. Increasing the arc length will require higher arc voltage and the current will drop, and visa versa. If the droop is steep, approaching an ideal CC characteristic, litle or no change in current can be achieved. Welders, thus, may prefer some droop so that they have an instantaneous means of controlling current and heat input. However, it takes more skill to control the arc since less droop (more CV-lke) promotes current fluctuation and an unsteady arc, a soni a ee net Soar eee eaeGooderham Centre for Industrial Learning Self-Regulation of the Arc When the control of electrode feed is automated, itis possible to maintain an arc with a constant voltage type of power source (Figure 6.5). Itis a relatively recent discovery in the history of welding arcs that a stable arc can be maintained with a constant voltage power source if the electrode is fed at a suitable constant speed (mechanically fed). The electrode feed speed demands a current which is of the proper amount to melt off the electrode at an equal rate. If the current is not sufficient, the electrode will not melt-off fast enough and the arc length will decrease, or visa versa. This leads to regulation of the arc length as follows. If the arc is too long, the CV power source will deliver less current than required to melt off the wire at the required rate. This will cause the arc length to decrease with time, and the arc current to increase. Arc length will decrease until the current rises to provide a melt-off rate to match the feed rate. The opposite will ocour if the arc length is 100 short. The arc length will thus regulate around the operating point where the current provides the required melt-off rate. It is found that a welding arc in such a manner is stable and usable for welding. The arc is said to self-regulate. curent set. current ‘drops point’ lees Figure 6.5: Self Regulation of the Arc Most systems with automated wire feed, such as GMAW, FCAW, etc., use this phenomenon of self- regulation of the arc; employing constant voltage power sources with constant speed electrode (wire) feeders.Gooderham Centre for Industrial Learning GV System Control Inputs The power source voltage and wire feed rate are the primary operator inputs with CV self- regulating systems. Adjusting Source Voltage ‘Adjusting Electrode Feed Rate (locreasing) ower) Figure 6.6: CV Control System Inputs Power source voltage, as represented on the V-! graphic as a raising and lowering of the power source characteristic, mainly determines arc length (Figure 6.6). Electrode feed rate primarily determines arc current. It can be seen on the V-1 graphic that it will also. affect arc length due to the slope of the arc characteristic. Increasing electrode feed rate tends to decrease arc length, and decreasing electrode feed rate tends to increase arc length. The result is that ‘adjustments to electrode feed rate, such as to adjust heat input or metal deposition rate, must be coupled with voltage adjustments to maintain the optimum arc length. An optimum arc length is short enough for good heat concentration, but not so short as to be subject to short-circuiting and erratic metal transfer. Voltage Controlled Wire Feed The other basic method of automatic regulation of the arc can be accomplished with a constant current type power source, and a variable speed electrode feed system (Figure 6.7). In this case, the variable are voltage (provided by the constant current power source) is used to generate a signal to control the electrode feed rate. With this system the electrode melt-off rate is fixed by the power source current. If the wire feed rate is not fast enough to match the melt-off rate, then the arc will get longer, the arc voltage: will rise, and the wire feed rate will increase. This will go on until the arc is long enough to feed the wire at a sufficient speed for the current setting. The opposite will occur i the wire feed speed is too fast for the set current - the arc will get shorter to slow the wire speed down. Set et cea acerca ace ff ae eHnnn : Gooderham Centre for Industrial Learning Hn gee eae ett le lille eld Figure 6.7: Voltage Controlled Wire Feed ‘Also, the arc will also tend to regulate at a length determined between the balance of current and electrode feed rate. If the arc gets too long, the arc voltage will increase and the feeder will drive the electrode faster than it is melting off. This response tends to decrease the arc length. The length will decrease until the voltage drops to where electrode is being fed at a rate equal to its fixed melt-off rate. If the arc is too shor, the opposite will occur. Thus the arc length will regulate about an operating point where the electrode feed rate equals the fixed melt-off rate. This method of automatic arc length control gives a stable and usable arc for welding. Such systems are called voltage controlled wire feed systems. ) Voltage controlled wire feed actually predates the discovery of self-regulation. Self-regulation systems have prevailed because of their greater simplicity (constant voltage sources and no control interconnections between the power source and wire feeder). There are some modern systems for GMA ‘welding which use the voltage controlied wire feed system, but it is not in wide use. Inputs For Systems With Voltage Controlled Wire Feed With voltage controlled systems the operator inputs are welding current, and a control which dictates the ‘amount of electrode feed rate for a given arc voltage. The latter is via a characteristic of the circuit coupling the electrode feeder with the power source (Figure 6.8). ' Figure 6.8: Voltage Controlled Inputs i 65Gooderham Centre for Industrial Learning The electrode feed rate/voltage relationship controls arc length. The current mainly controls the electrode feed rate. ‘Typically, the current setting on the power source is used to increase or decrease electrode feed rate, and hence, heat input and metal deposition. This tends to change the arc length, since more current fequires more voltage to feed electrode at a higher rate. The result is an increased arc length with increased current, of visa versa. The electrode feed rate/voltage must be adjusted to compensate and restore the arc to its desired length. ‘Synergic Welding Control The technology of synergic welding control is based on the emergence of imbedded computer- based technologies in welding equipment (Figure 6.9). In its simplest form, synergic control is the term used to describe a system in which the welding power source and wire feader are more intimately integrated than is typical with conventional systems (¢.g., simple CV self-regulating arc systems with a separately controlled power source and wire feeder). For instance, a synergic system might be designed to sense the wire feed rate and automatically adjust the power source voltage to keep the arc at an optimum length. This makes the process easier to operate and more trouble-free. A similar scenario could be ‘applied to a voltage controlled wire feed system. Completely new control schemes are also possible. ‘alaing cas, Figure 6.9: Synergic Welding Control In order to accomplish this, computational capability is required, as in the form of microprocessor based systems. Also, basic data Is required as to how a particular arc process operates under various conditions. For instance, how much does the voltage have to be adjusted to compensate for a certain ‘amount of wire speed change? This is not a trivial undertaking rolative to the large variety of welding process conditions. The so-called synergic relationships typically take the form of schedules for various wire and shielding gas characteristics that must be selected for synergic operation. 7 66 =F? gc eeeGooderham Centre for Industrial Learning Open Circuit Voltage ‘The open-circuit voltage of a welding power source is an important electrical variable which affects its operation. The open-circuit voltage is the voltage the source delivers without an arc, that is with zero current being delivered. This is the voltage that exists at its output terminals when the power supply is on, but an arc is not established. Constant current supplies tend to have high open-circuit voltages due to the nature of their V-1 characteristic. Most regulations limit the maximum open circuit voltage of a CC power source to 80v, for safely reasons. Even ideal CC supplies are designed to supply only a limited output vottage as current decreases, giving them the unusual looking V-! characteristic as shown in Figure 6.10. It is desirable to design a welding power source to have a high open-circuit voltage, since higher open- circuit voltage is required for arc initiation. CV supplies are designed to operate at a constant voltage ‘equal to the arc voltage, thus do not inherently have high open-circuit voltages. Circuits to provide extra voltage under open-circuit conditions are sometimes included in CV power sources to help arc starting. They are sometimes called hot start circuits. Figure 6.10: Open-Circult Voltage Short Circuit Current Short-circuit current is the current that @ power source delivers when its output is shorted (no arc). In arc welding this ocours during arc starting, or whenever metal bridges the gap during metal transfer with a consumable electrode. Constant current power sources have inherently low short-circuit current capability due to their droop (Figure 6.11). Constant voltage sources have inherently high short-circuit current capabilities since there are no circuit elements to limit the current. iu 67 eeeSee Gooderham Centre for Industrial Learning (1000's) Figure 6.11: Short Circuit Current Short-circuit current exhibits itself in the behavior of the arc process when shorting occurs. High short- circuit current tends to produce violent shorting reactions, ejecting metal in starts or metal transfer events, producing spatter. Low short-circuit current leads to sticking of the electrode and extinguishing of the arc. The latter results in difficulty in maintaining a manual arc with a CC power source. Constant current supplies usually include circuitry to provide a flaring of the V-! characteristic at low voltages (lower than typical arc voltages) to higher current. These are called “arc force or arc dig’ circuits. The amount of short circuit current is often made adjustable via a knob on the panel of the welding machine so that a welder can adapt the short-circuit current to the particular electrode and welding application. This will be adjusted to prevent sticking or stubbing of the electrode, without excessive generation of spatter. Short-circuit current is also a factor in CV welding machine designs. The problem tends to be excessive short-circuit current resulting in violent starting and erratic metal transfer. Constant voltage machines are thus designed with some droop, to limit short-circuit current capacity. Inductance or its equivalent is also added to the circult and is effective at limiting the rate of current rise during momentary shorting. (See Module 4) Reactive Current Control ‘The output current of manual machines must be controlled to produce a drooping or CC characteristic, ‘The control method must allow for adjustment of the current. A significant development in power sources. was the use of inductance to control current, In this regard, AC circuits provide the advantage that slope can be provided by the use of inductance. In welding circuits this Is often called reactance or the inductive reactance of the inductor, and the inductor is called a reactor. Older machines are thus found that are reactance or reactor controlled welding machines (Figure 6.12). In effect, the series reactor (inductance) causes a drop in the AG load voltage as current increases, just like a resistor causes a drop in DC voltage (or AC for that matter). The reactor must be placed before the rectifiers in a DC source 7 68Gooderham Centre for Industrial Learning since itis an AC device, Some means of adjustment of the reactance is provided for a means of adjusting the current output by varying the amount of output droop or slope. More reactance provides more droop and less current. Loss reactance provides less droop and more current. vv Jranatormar ‘Secondary ‘Ao = 1 Current Varies Line . Figure 6.12: Reactive Current Control Single-phase sources use a single reactor. Three-phase sources use three reactors, one for each phase. Tap Controlled Reactance A simple method for providing control of the output of welding machines with transformers and reactors is by tapping (Figure 6.13). In essence, connections are provided to the transformer secondary winding and reactor windings at multiple intemal points. This allows the number of secondary or reactor windings to be varied, to vary the machine output. Tapping can be accomplished either with bolted terminal type connections, of with large switch mechanisms which engage with different tap points. Tapping is a rather crude way to provide control, and does not provide a continuous range of variation. In some cases, tapping is used for coarse range changing, and another control mechanism is used to provide a finer level of output control.Gooderham Centre for industrial Learning Figure 6.13: Tap Controlled Reactance Magnetic Circuit Controlled Reactance A very successful method of welding machine output control with reactors has been via the utilization of ‘magnetic circuit methods. Magnetic circuits have to do with the flow of magnetic flux in the iron cores of transformers and reactors. Controlling of the flow of the flux allows control of the inductance (Figure 6.14). ‘A common magnetic circuit design was to use a Variable reactor core geometry. For instance, a member of the iron core can be moved to produce a variable air gap in the magnetic circuit of the core. Less air gap gives less magnetic core reluctance and, hence, more magnetic field in the core and more inductive ‘effect. More air gap accomplishes the opposite, ‘Thus mechanical movement of the core element controls output slope and current. The simplest machines utilize a crank arrangement. More complex machines might use a motor driven mechanism. Such a control might be used in conjunction with taps for selecting ranges of output. An advantage of this type of control is that it provides for smooth and infinite variation of current over the range of the machine.Gooderham Centre for Industrial Learning sh Tae Figure 6.14: Magnetic Circuit Controlled Reactance Magnetic Circuit Controlled Transformer Another reactance approach utilizes only a transformer, which was popular because of its simplicity. In effect, an inefficient transformer design is utilized which involves provision for leakage flux, or magnetic flux from the primary which does not couple through the transformer core to the secondary. Such a transformer does not just reduce the voltage, but has an inductance equal to that of the primary windings ) through the leakage path. The inductance behaves as if it were in series with the transformer secondary. Either a movable iron core, or a movable coil element is utilized to allow variation of inductance and, hence, output slope for current control. This could be used in conjunction with taps for range selection (Figure 6.15). lagnetic Circuit Controlled Transformer Transformers designed in this manner are sometimes called /oosely coupled transformer designs, since all of the magnetic field of the primary is not coupled through the secondary. This is as opposed to tightly coupled transformer designs in which all flux is coupled from the primary to the secondary. The latter provide constant voltage output, as compared to the former which provide the drooping or more constant current type of output. i 71Gooderham Centre for Industrial Learning ener eee EERE nnneniriinsnrsreninnnensnenemeemtnaneemladan ’ y The loosely coupled transformer for drooping power source design was popular because of greater simplicity (less components) over the separate transformer and reactor approach. Designs often utilized a moving secondary coil rather than a moving iron core element. In this case, the coil was moved away from the primary to reduce coupling. -J> Saturable Reactors A significant advance in reactor controlled machines was in the use of saturable reactors (Figure 6.16). The inductance of a saturable reactor is varied by saturation of the magnetic core of the reactor with a ‘magnetic field from an auxiliary, low power control winding. increasing contro! winding current increases ‘core saturation which decreases the effective inductance from a maximum with no saturation (zero control coil current). Since control winding currents are DC, it was necessary to have two control windings on separate reactances (cores), one for the positive and one for the negative cycle of AC (not ‘shown in illustration). The transformation effect of voltage from the welding to the control circuit was also | canceled out in this way. fe ‘Magnetic feld from control coll ‘anturates magnetic core to raduce the effective Inductance ‘of main reactor coll Figure 6.16: Saturable Reactors Saturable reactors provided two key advances. First, inductance could be varied without moving parts. Second, electrical control of inductance allowed ‘electrical feedback to be implemented to provide more precise control of electrical output. When used with feedback, saturable reactor controls are called ‘magnetic amplifiers, or mag-amps. Amplification results from the ability to control large electrical current {high power) through the reactor with low electrical current (low power) through the control winding. This type of control was widely used in the 60's and 70's, especially for more precision applications like GTAW. It was also a popular way of controlling electrical power in any high power electrical circuits. Saturation could also be employed with loosely coupled transformer designs. In this case saturation of _ the transformer core was controlled with a control winding. This varies the amount of coupling between | the primary and secondary, and thus the amount of “leakage inductance”.Gooderham Centre for Industrial Learning eee eee eee eee eae eee ae ae ec gece Inductive Power Factor A problem with reactively controlled welding machines is low power factor - as low as 0.6 or even less. The high inductance in the machines for slope control causes large phase shifts between primary current ‘and voltage from the AC line, The machines thus draw excessive primary current for the actual electrical power utilized at the arc. Power factor correction capacitors were often installed across the input line ‘connection on such machines to correct the power factor (Figure 6.17). oe ie Power Factor Correction: japacitor - Selected to compensate for combined inductance of transformer and reactor Figure 6.17: Inductive Power Factor Electrical Feedback Control Saturable reactors introduced the prospect for the control of the output of welding power sources by feedback control (Figure 6.18). Feedback is accomplished by electrically measuring the output quantity to be controlled (e.g., current for a manual welding machine). The measurement is compared electrically to a control input, usually a voltage generated from a potentiometer circuit via a knob on the front panel of the machine, which represents the desired current. A circuit is used to measure the sign and ‘magnitude of the difference between the two to produce the so-called error signal between the actual and desired outputs. The error signal is input (feedback) to the control means (e.g., the saturable reactor control winding) to produce a correction to the output. Thus, if the current is higher than desired, the error is negative (desired minus actual value), and the input current to the saturable reactor control winding will be increased to increase the inductance and reduce the current. If the current is lower than desired, the opposite will occur to increase the current. This is analogous to the cruise, or speed control in modem automobiles. Manual control of speed requires that the driver watch the speedometer and manipulate the accelerator to keep speed constant. The cruise control eliminates manual control and requires only that the driver input a desired speed. 73Gooderham Centre for Industrial Learning arent nga Figure 6.18: Electrical Feedback Control ‘Such feedback controls allow the implementation of power source V-! characteristics which approach that of ideal constant current (or ideal constant voltage if desired) characteristics. Feedback control is always employed in the design of modern, industrial welding power sources. Solid- state devices are, however, used to provide the control means. Output or Stabilizing Inductance Itis common to add inductances to the DC output side of a DC welding machine. This should be distinguished from the use of a reactor to control the output slope or ‘droop of a constant current machine. Inductance on the DC output side is referred to as the stabilizing inductance, or just inductance (Figure 6.19). The stabilizing inductance provides several useful characteristics, all associated with the dynamic, as opposed to static, characteristic of the machine. Figure 6.19: Output or Stabilizing Inductance One characteristic of a stabilizing inductance is that it provides an inductive voltage surge when a shot Is broken. This helps in initiating or reinitiating of the arc. Reinitiation is important where shorting occurs frequently in metal transfer, and reinitiation of the arc must occur reliably for stable arc operation. 74Oe ae : Gooderham Centre for Industrial Learning ‘Another related characteristic of inductance is that it lowers the circuit voltage when current rises suddenly (¢.9., due to a short) and transiently limits short-circuit current and violent explosion of the metal bridge. ‘This makes metal transfer smoother and reduces weld spatter. This is important with the use of CV machines. Finally, inductance produces fering of the output current and voltage of the power source. This smoothes out ripple from the rectification process, and from the choppy result of SCR type control ‘A disadvantage of Inductance in the power source output is that it limits the rate that current can be made to riso and fall when circuits are used to pulse the welding current. Inductance may have desirable or undesirable affects in a welding circuit, just as mass has such affects in a mechanical system. For instance, flywheel mass in an engine makes the engine run smoother by opposing sudden changes in engine speed as cylinders fire. On the other hand, it also contributes to limiting the rate at which the speed of the engine can increase when accelerating. There is some compromise in the design of the flywheel for optimum performance. Such is the situation with inductance in a welding circuit. Multi-Process Power Sources Feedback controls employed in modem welding power source design provide the potential for great flexibility in their output characteristic. The output characteristic, for instance whether it is constant ‘current, constant vollage, or something in between, is determined by the feedback control circuit design. ‘This is independent of the actual power control element utlized (e.9., resistor, reactor, SCR). Thus & single machine can be designed with various control circuits, that can be selected by the user by switches ton the front panel. A characteristic of a single machine can thus be selected ¢o that it can be used in @ Constant current mode for SMAW or GTAW, or in @ constant voltage mode such that it can be used for GMAW (Figure 6.20). Due to the rapidity of control with inverters, the dynamics of the machine can also be tailored by the control circuit characteristic. This has allowed the design of machines with the capability for multi-process operation. This is a new development in the industry, since in the past welding machines have GTAW been designed and marketed for application to a single process( 0.9., ‘SMAW. / (SPEC. CHAR.) ‘SMAW, GTAW or GMAW) and were \ strictly classified as CC or CV machines, GMAW ~_ Figure 6.20: Multl-Process Power Sources 7Gooderham Centre for Industrial Learning Microprocessor Controls Clreuitry used for welding power source control has grown in sophistication with the available technologies. Early controls utilized discrete electrical and electronic components such a6 resistors, Switches, relays, motors, and the like. As the uso of SCR's and transistors emerged, solid-state circuits using transistors, electronic amplifiers, and the like were utilized to implement feedback control circuits, More modem power sources make use of complex digital and analog integrated circuits to perform Control functions. The latest development has been the increasing use of imbedded microprocessors in Welding power sources and associated equipment to provide more sophisticated levels of control, Some Welding equipment has advanced fo the point of using keypads and computer displays for operator reat promise in the future of arc welding technology. Figure 6.21 shows a microprocessor controlled inverter-based welder for GMAW, FCAW, and SMAW. which has the capability to store welding procedures and pulse waveforms for pulsed GMAW. Figure 6.21: Microprocessor Controlled Inverter-Based Welder (Photo courtesy of Lincoln Electric Company) bet ener Ace ee ee cece eee[Ore gy ene eee eee UL EN Ve U MUO Eee Ee me Gooderham Centre for Industrial Learning Section 7: Arc Starting Systems Are Starter Circuits - HF Initiating of a welding arc requires that electrical breakdown be achieved (See Section 4). This can be accomplished by the application of a sufficiently high voltage between the electrodes to exceed the sparking potential. Gas tungsten arc welding often employs a momentary application of high voltage via either a high frequency or impulse type voltage generator to achieve breakdown. High frequency, or “HE, systems create a continuously and rapidly fluctuating high voltage. This high voltage/low current either creates, or supports an ionized path through the gas media between electrodes. It is relatively easy to generate such a voltage with a spark gap generator circuit, and couple it to the welding electrode (Figure 7.1). | Work: MO AC step-up Cm0.002mF ‘Transformer Figure 7.1: Arc Starter Circuits - HF In high frequency systems, incoming AC line voltage is stepped up to several thousand volts by a transformer, This voltage is supplied to a spark gap in parallel with a capacitor. The capacitor is altemately charged by the transformer voltage and discharged as the spark gap breaks down. This occurs at tens of thousands of times per second. The impulses of current fiow are coupled through & transformer, which produces high voltage spikes onto the welding power source output leads, sufficient to produce breakdown of the gap between the electrode and the workpiece. This produces cracking, filamentary arcs between the electrode and work piece followed by arc starting, ‘The series RC filter across the input power source leads shorts the high frequency to bypass the power source and prevent the high voltage from damaging intemal power source components. ‘A circuit is usually used to sense the arc and tum off the high frequency unit. In some applications the high frequency is left on continuously to “stabilize” the arc. This is primarily used when operating the arc with sinusoidal AC.