) LEARNING CENTRE WELDING HEALTH AND SAFETY MODULE 1 Copyright © 2006 by The CWB Group - Industry Services Revised January 2006 All rights reserved, ‘Although due care has been taken in the preparation ofthis module neither the ‘CWB Learning Centre nor any contributing author can accept any lability arising {rom the use of misuse of any information contained herein or for any errors that ‘may be contained in the module. Information is presented for educational purposes ‘and should not be used for design, material selection, procedure selection or similar purposes without independent verification. Where reference to other documents, such as codes and standards, is made readers are encouraged to consult the original sources in detail LEARNING CENTRE 7250 West Credit Avenue, Mississauga,ON LSN SN1 Tel: 1-800-844-6790/905-542-2176 Fax:905-542-1837, www.cwblearning.org') LEARNING CENTRE') LEARNING CENTRE. MODULE 1 WELDING HEALTH AND SAFETY CONTENTS ‘Terms and Definitions Creating a Safe Work Environment. Legislation oo WHMIS... : General hazards... Guidanoe General Hazards in Welding and their Control. Electrical : Radiation Bums and fires Fumes Gases Noise Peden ate DARI cece cece momesnncenasn © | Health and Safety for Specific Operations Gas welding, cutting, and heating Welding in confined spaces... | Welding containers that have held hazardous materials 75 | Laser and electron beam welding Led Resistance welding 78 Automate and robotic welding. Summary o.oo Additional Resources. Guides and Exercises ... Test and Answer Sheets') LEARNING CENTRE) LEARNING CENTRE Terms and Definitions ACGIH ANSI/AWS Z49.1 CANICSA W117.2 Msps OHSA WHMIS Absorption Acute Reaction Carcinogen Cornea Current Decanted Decontamination ‘The American Conference of Government Industrial Hygienists is a national body in the United States of ‘Anerica which sets allowable levels of exposure to hazards. Eg., allowable levels of noise or welding fume exposure Inthe United States of America, a national standard providing guidance on Health and Safety in welding and cutting ‘ACanadian National Standard which addresses health and safety in welding, cutting and allied processes. ‘Ax acronym for “Material Safety Data Sheet”, a document which contains more specific information ‘elated to a product. The MSDS contains nine categories of information, ‘Occupational Health and Safety Act. In Canada and the United States of America which regulates Health and Safety legislation in the workplace. In Canada, an acronym for "Workplace Hazardous Nateras information System’; A Canadian, federal system which has been adopted by all provinces to support safety in the workplace. Designed on the basis of the workers right‘o-know what hazards are present in the workplace. In particular it relates to toxins and chemicals inthe workplace. Tre act of absorbing; where absorbing means to take up by chemical or molecular action. Immediate, severe or intense symptons resulting from contact or exposure to a hazard. Asubstance that is known to cause cancer. ‘Tre transparent membrane which covers the front of the eyeball. ‘Tne amount of electricity flowing past a point in a ‘conductor in a given period of time. ‘To pour from one container into another. ‘To make safe by destroying or neutralizing poisonous or radioactive materials. 3') LEARNING CENTRE econ aa Explosive Detntions Flammable | Fash Point Electromagnetic, Fume Ingestion Inhalation lonizing Radiation Legislation Non-lonizing Radiation Radiation Resistance (electrical) Respirable ‘Supplier Label | Workplace Labels Voltage Liable to explode; where explode means to blow up or a sudden re ease of gases accompanied by noise and violence. Capable of catching fire easily ‘The lowest temperature at which vapors of a combustible liquid wit ignite. Any of a cass of waves propagated by a system of electric and magnetic fields, including all forms of radiant energy from radio and light waves to gamma and cosmic rays. ‘An emission of smoke, vapor or gas. To take or put into the body by swallowing, ‘The act of inhaling; where inhaling means to draw into the lungs as breath. Electromagnetic waves with sufficient energy to cause lonization of matter. The wave, when striking an atom, imparts sutticient energy to disiodge an electron, thereby creating an ion ‘An officially enacted law or laws. Electromagnetic waves with insufficient energy to create ions, Energy propagated (spread out) in the form of waves or parties. ‘The opposition that a conductor offers to the passage of an elecrrical current, ‘Able to be breathed. In terms of fume particles, those of a size range capable of being inhaled into the lungs. Identification affixed to a container or package by the manufacturer or distributor of a product. {An identifying label affixed to the container or package of a hazardous material which was decanted from the original container. Electrometive force, expressed in volts. The voltage in an electrical system can often be seen as the force ina mechanical system, or the pressure in a hydraulic system, 4’) LEARNING CENTRE MODULE 1 Introduction Objective WELDING HEALTH AND SAFETY This Moduleisaimed at creating agenetal awareness ofhealth and safety aspeds of welding and related processes. It is intended to provide a background for welders, welding supervisors, technicians, andothers that may use orbecome involved with welding processes, Butbecause safety procedures depend on specificconditions, equip- ment, or locel regulations, the module can only treat the subject in general terms. Different or additional safety practices may be appropriate for specific situations and expert advice may need to be sought. After successfully completing this module you should be able to: + Describe the WHMIS system and understand the meaning of warning labels + List important hazards resulting from welding and related proc esses + Describe means of avoiding electrical shocks + Describe how the welder can be protected from arc rays, heat and burns + Recognize when special ventilation is required to control fumes + List hazerds associated with the use of gases and describe general safety practices + Explain how fires and explosions can be avoided + Describe safety practices for welding and cutting in confined spaces + List some of the hazards associated with less common welding processes. + Follow First-Aid measures as recommended by St. John Ambu- lance. Please note that St, John Ambulance assumes noliabilty -aid information by persons uncertified in first= aidandlor CPR. 8') LEARNING CENTRE Legislation CREATING A SAFE WORK ENVIRONMENT Nearly all industrial operations—indeed, virtually all human activities —entail potential risks to health and safety. Welding and related activities expose the worker and those nearby to certain hazards ranging from fire and electric shock to eye damage and long term health effects, Minimizing these hazards is the joint responsi- bilty of the employer and the worker: the employer must inform the ‘worker about the hazards and provide a safe working environment; the worker must use protective equipment and follow safety proce- dures. Some general rules for promoting a safe working environ- ment are: + use a safe method of working. If in doubt, ask + followhealth and safety procedures, respect warning signs, and always read safety labels + use personal protective clothing and equipment where required + ensure equipment is maintained in a safe condition and report defective or unsafe equipment + donot use any material or process until the hazards are known + exercise good housekeeping practices + donot enter any restricted area unless authorized + do not defeat the purpose of any safety features of equipment. + St. John Ambu ance recommends being familiar with First-Aid procedures and practices. Many laws are applicable to health and safety aspects of welding. Legislation varies from place to piace and will not be discussed in detail, but several important points will be mentioned, Recent laws embody the idea of the “right to know’ of persons in the workplace. The ideais that anyone in the workplace has the right to know about the hazards of materials they maybe exposed to or work they may have to undertake. Some laws specifically give the worker the right to refuse to undertake work if he or she has reason to believe that itis unsafe’) LEARNING CENTRE OSHA Canada WHMIS Hazardous Materials In the USA the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) is tne federal body that regulates health and safety in the ‘workplace and which the majority of states follow in their legisiation OSHA may, for example, require labels on products that identify carcinogenic potential. OSHA may also set limits for the exposure to specific materials that present a hazard to health, In Canada, health and safety in the workplace is subject to provincial legislation except for federally regulated industries such as the national railways. In Ontario, for example, the Occupational Health and Safety Act covers such things as safety committees, rights of werkers to be informed about potential hazards, “desig- nated" substances that are requlatedin specificways, and exposure limits. The health and safety acts of all the provinces have recently been amended to implement the federal “Workplace Hazardous Materials Information System” (WHMIS). This has resulted in @ Canada-wide system in effect since 31 October 1988. Under the idea of “right to know" the objective of WHMIS is to ‘ensure that information on hazardous materials gets to all those in the workplace that could be exposed to the hazard. At the present time itonly covers toxins and chemicals but not physical agents such as noise of ultraviolet light. Physical agents, however, may be regulated under the provincial health and safety laws, and itis likely that WHMIS will be extended to cover physical agents in the future. Under WHMIS, information is conveyed by three methods: + Productiabels + Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) + Training SAFETY TIPS: Workplace First-Aid Requirements, Regulation 1101 Ministry of Health’Workers Compensation Act, Ontario. Similar documents may exist in other provinces or states. Hazardous materials are those meeting specific criteria (listed on the following page) under the Hazardous Products Act and are called Controlled Products. There is no list of controlled products; anything meeting the criteria is included. Controlled products are assigned to one or more of six classes which are listed on the following pege with their corresponding symbols shown in Fig. 1LEARNING CENTRE Class A: Compressed Gas Materials such ascarbon dioxide, and argon thatare gases atroom temperature (20°C) andare keptunder pressure. Class B: Flammable and Combustible Materials that wil ignite and continue to burn when exposed to a fiame. A flammable liquid is one with a flash point less than 37.8°C (10°F) end a combustible liquid is one with a flash point greater than 37.8°C. The flash point is the minimum temperature at which the liquid gives off enough vapour to ignite under test conditions. Examples’ Flammable: gasoline, ethyl alcohol Combustible: kerosene, creosote, Class C: Oxidizing Materials, such as oxygen ilself or potassium chlorate, that will cause another to bum. Class D: Poisonous and Biohazardous Infectious a) Materials causing immediate serious toxic effects when taken into the body. b) Those that cause other toxiceffects such aslongterm effects on health. Carcinogens (cancer causing) are in this class, ©) Materials (organisms) that may cause infectious diseases. For example, certain bacteria and viruses. Class E: Corrosive Materials that wil destroy human tissue and other materials. For ‘example, sulphtric acid, Class F: Dangerously Reactive Materials that by chemical reaction with another substance or seif-reaction when heated or pressurized may create a hazard, ‘Amaterial that produces a poisonous gas on contact with water would be in this class. But explosives are covered under a separate law—rot WHMIS.’) LEARNING CENTRE O® © Class A: Compressed Gas Class B: Flammable Class C: Oxidizing and Combustible © © ® Class D: Poisonous and Biohazardous Infectious a) Materials causing ) Materials causing other) Materials (organisms) immediate serious toxic _toxie effects such as long that may cause infectious effects term effects diseases Sy Class E: Corrosive Class F: Dangerously Reactive Fig. 1. Hazard symbols and their significance.LEARNING CENTRE WHMIS labels Supplier labels & Workplace labels Many materials usedin, orassociatedwith, welding operationsmay be classified as hazardous and come under WHMIS. Examplesare: + Oxygenandother gases for cutting and welding + Welding consumables + Materials to be welded. Any controlled product coming into or produced in a workplace musthave an identifying label (supplier label) affixedto the container or package. In addition, labels are also required in the workplace (workplace labels) to ensure thatthe information is transmittedto the ‘end user of the material. Workpiace labels must also be placed on controlled products decanted from their original containers into another at the workalace. Labels must notbe altered or destroyed since that would defeat the purpose of WHMIS and might expose someone to a hazard that they were unaware of. WHMIS labels have a characteristic appear- ance recognizable by the border. The supplier labels (Fig. 2)contain the following information: + Product identifier (common name, brand name, code, etc.) + Supplier identifier (name of supplier) + MSDS statement (says that a Material Safety Data Sheet is available) + Hazard symbol (one or more of the standard symbols) + Risk phrases (they describe the effects of exposure, eg., “spontaneously flammable") + Precautionary measures (how to avoid the tisk, €.g., “store in designated area, no smoking’) + St. John Ambulance recommends First Aid Measures: Actions tobe taken in the event of exposure. Dry Chemical: Remove the chemical from the body by flushing the affected area with large amounts of water for 15-20 minutes. if the chemical is a dry powder, brush off any loose chemical with a soft cloth before flushing, Workplace labels contain less information than supplier labels and only give: + Product identifier + Safe handling instructions + MSDS statement 10') LEARNING CENTRE. posseesesssscsseng PRODUCT IDENTIFIER IDENTIFICATEUR DU PRODUIT HAZARD HAZARD HAZARD SYMBOL, ‘SYMBOL SYMBOL ‘SIGNAL SIGNAL ‘SIGNAL DE DE DE DANGER DANGER DANGER RISK PHRASES MENTIONS DE RISQUE PRECAUTIONS A PRENORE FIRSTAID MEASURES (WHERE APPLICABLE) PREMIER SOINS AADMINISTRER. (ORSQILYALIEU) MATERIAL SAFETY DATASHEET AVAILABLE FICHE SIGNALETIQUE EST DISPONIBLE SUPPLIER IDENTIFIER, IDENTIFICATEUR DE FOURNISSEUR 4 i 5 4 s 4 s PRECAUTIONARY MEASURES ‘ A 4 4 5 5 heeeeeeeeeeueeeuauaa: Leeeenneneeesenne: In special cases Vaboratory samples, laboratory supplies, workplace labels), the ‘ins inte may conan fess sfrmation, a lows {9} Leboratry Samples (10 kilograms o ess) “LPRODUCTIOENTIIER, 2 .CHERICAL IDENTITY CRGENERICCHEMICALIDENTITY 5 "HAZARDOUS LABORATORY SAMPLE. FOR HAZARD INFORMATONORINANEMERGENCY, CALL” EMERGENCY TELEPDNE NUMBEROF SUPPLIER Laboratory Supplies (10 Klogams or ls) {.PRODUCTIDENTIFIER 2 MATERIAL SAFETY OSTASHEET AVAILABLE (WHERE APPLICABLE) S-RISKPHRASES, 4 PRECALTIONARYMESSURES 5 FIRST AIDMEASURES (WHERE APPLICABLE) 6) Workplace Labels |. PRODUCTIDENTINER 2. HAZAROINFORMATION 5 MATERIAL SAFETY CATA SHEETS AVAILABLE Fig. 2. Information grovided on a WHMIS supplier label. "») LEARNING CENTRE {fa supplier feels that providing this information gives away trade secrets, he may appiy toan impartial review commission setup under the Hazardous Materials Information Review Act (HMIRA) for an exemption. The WHMIS supplierlabeladopted by the Welding Products Manufacturers Association of Canada (WPMAC) is shown in Fig. 3. presess 8 Wang ne READMATERIALSAFETY DATASHEET BEFORE USING Ts PRODUCT Shin cena. ves oy sr wee lnm yours fom wore ne ons Koop tes an gases rom your oreath'ng2one ane ‘ental aren, Use enaug voriaton oes at har RC RAYS can jr yes an bur sin @ MUD STEEL WELDING WARE LURE LA FICHE SIGNALETIOUE AVANT OUTILISER CE PRODUT. LES CHOCS ELECTRIGUES peuvent Wer vier oa contact aves des les ou des @acuodes sous tno, fuout's la eau, ls vitararse uke gan sont hues, Stor co LES FUMEES ET LES VAPEURS DE GAZ pewent dive dargeautes ro sani Clagnr lols ‘umes ot vapours ca gar ef zane ot mses et ee vapeur co gar 9s sour. LERAYONNEMENT DE LARC peut blsior es your ot bur Ia peu. Porter fequpenes! de pctecien Indwcuele apropse pou et You let orale Is peau PREMIERS SOINE: En cate surexposton eux mess do coucape ng. Cling, on es Pro et Fig. 3 wsps FRST AG Wesponad to excene wel 12725, OW Sten. In case of ay, oles sho, emgoy twemnqus aod el a pryzean medal Bt cider Saal frie a vita a ai lee En ca Sempoction au fayonement de fare ou do chee dechove, ‘iminater ler premiers sone haus et fore venir un mascn Sars age WHIMIS supplier label used for welding products. The WHMIS labelalerts the usertoahazard butobviously doesnot have enoughroomta provide detailedinformation. The suppliermust, therefore, provide a Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) for each controlled productsupplied, and thismustbe accessible to anyone who requiresit. The MSDS containsnine categories of information: + hazardous ingredients + preparation infermation + product information + physical data + fire or explosion hazard + reactivity data + toxicological properties + preventive measures + first aid measures. While some of the information in an MSDS is likely to be highly technical and would be used by engineers or safety officers, other parts provide valuable safety information. Hence MSDS's must be 12) LEARNING CENTRE Training made available oall workers whouse or may be exposed to controlled products. An example of some ofthe information inan MSDS used in awelding contextisillustrated in Fig. 4. Under the WHMIS systeminstruction mustbe provided for employ- ees who are exposed to controlled products. The training must be tailored to the specific job, materials, and hazards that the worker encounters. in addition, specialized industrial First-Aid training, as offered by St John Ambulance in Canada, will provide the worker with ‘the ability toreduce suffering and preventfurtherinjuryin the eventofan accident. WCBRegulation 1101 of Ontario requiresallwork placesto have first-aidtrained employees onsite. ‘rg wekang wah acmal eo neve produc oe covered by Secton V-REACTNITYOATA. se nn waReDIENr cs oy Taare tiatomese ieeees ie. {90 gmt ot ran lone tna aster) {ore eso moot Pome RE or VERS HAATEN Pa -Ft co idgtiremert ent iti tet tae ech a T, aa rt ec te wing may cl one or mora he leigh are: Fura are Gases canbe dang uth ‘ec aysan nu jes ndbum sain Eee shock ‘Rat promes On ntl prose nna es oocroses en Fig. 4. Example of some of the information that may be contained in a Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS). This one is for a stainless stee! electrode. 13') LEARNING CENTRE General Hazards in the Shop Guidance on Welding Health and Safety. Welding personne! working in a shop will be exposed to potential hazards in addition to those directly associated with welding. For example, overheadcranesmay be moving largepiecesof steelaround, various plecesofmachinery may be operating, orradiography maybe being performedine section ofthe shop. Likewise, other people not directly involved in welding, including occasional visitors tothe shop, may be exposed to the hazards of welding, such as arc radiation, spatter, and fume. Many of the hazards in the shop environment are fairly apparent bytheirnature. We may call these inherent hazards and examples include: + machinery operation (mechanical hazards) + noise, arc radiation + welding sparks, spatter, open flames + vehicles, cranes, and moving material. Less obvious hazards—which we may call ‘latent’ hazards— may be just as important, but perhaps the worker is less aware of them, Latent hazards might include: + working with unfamiliar equipment + work around or in tanks or confined spaces + fumes and gases + gas leaks + improper electrical connections + unmarked hot metal. The following sections in this module cover health and safety aspects of welding and related operations. There are many other sources of information and some of these are listed at the end of the module. Health and safety in welding is also covered by national standards. In Canada: CAN/CSA W117.2 “Safety in Welding, Cutting, and Allied Processes” and in the USA: ANSAWS Z49.1- 94"Safety in Welding and Cutting,” 4') LEARNING CENTRE Identifying welding hazards & GENERAL HAZARDS IN WELDING AND THEIR CONTROL The firststep in defining safety practices for welding is todefine the potentialhazards, These, ofcourse, may edifferentfor each situation, butCSAW117.2provides some guidance on the general hazards that are associated with the common welding processes. Table 1 summa- ‘izes this information showing where a major hazard exists for four groups ofwelding processes, EXPOSURE TO HAZARDS: Canresu t by direct or indirect contact to skin or eyes, inhalation, ingestion or absorption. Table 1. General hazards In welding and cutting. Onjfiel SMAW SAW PAW cTAW Aircarbon Gmaw ‘Arc cutting FCAW ‘Shock * * Fire * * * * Bum * * * * Radiation | + * ro) * Heat * * * * Fumes! * * ) * Gases, Noise * * my be hazard some cumstances 18") LEARNING CENTRE Before discussing electrical hazards itis worth reviewing some basic facts about electricity. The amount of electricity flowing through circuits called the current (given the symbol, !)and is measured in amperes (A). To measure the current an ammeter is placed in the circuitsoallthe currentflows throughtheammeter. Currentsinwelding circuits can be very high, usually several hundred amperes. Facts about electricity ‘The electromotive force, or force thats trying to push the current through the circuit, is measured in volts (V). The voltage is measured by placing a voltmeter across two points in a circuit. Fig. Billustrates how voltage and current are measured. The resistance Fig. 6. Measurement of current and voltage in an electrical circuit. Vottage is measured across two points in a circuit. Current is the rate of flow of electricity through @ continuous circuit. | (Ryisaproperty ofthe material inthe circuitand determines how much Resistance | currents allowed to flow when a given voltage is placed across the uit. Itis measuredin ohms (j). Materials with verylow resistance, such as copper, are called conductors and allow large amounts of currenttoflow foragiven voltage. The voltage, current, andresistance are linked by Ohm's Law: 1=VR 16') LEARNING CENTRE. Line voltages Table 2. Open circuit voltages of welding power sources (NEMA). Fig. 6. Illustration of primary and secondary sides in the electrical circuits of welding power sources. The line or mains voltages available in shops are high: typically 480 V (USA), 875V (Canada) forthree phase, and 240 Vand 120V for single phase. These are the primary voltages that are the inputs to electrical equipment. In most equipmentthese voltagesare”stepped down’ bya transformer'to provide lowersecondary voltages as shown in Fig. 6. The voltage across the output terminals of most welding machines is about 80 V when no current is drawn (the open circuit voltage, OCV) butitdropsto20to 30 when the arcis establishedand currentis flowing. Open circuit voltages are limited by the National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA) Standard EW-1 andare given in Tabe 2. Manuallsemi-automatic AC 80 volts m.s* DC> 10%ripple 80 volts -ms. DC<10% ripple 100 voltsavg Automatic ac 100 volts rms, oc 100 volts avg. ‘rook mean square It is important to distinguish clearly between the primary and secondary sides of electrical equipmentbecause of the difference in voltages. 7’) LEARNING CENTRE Electrical shocks The human body can conduct electricity. Ifan external voltageis applied across partsof the body, acurrent wil flowwhich could result inshock, burns, paralysis, ordeath. The voltagesneeded to produce ‘enough currentto cause damage are not very high, butthe damage depends onmany factors such as where the currentfiows through the body, howeffectivetie contact with the external voltages, andsoforth. ‘The high voltages on the primary side of welding equipment are the most hazardous, but the open circuit voltages on the secondary side of welding equipment, although limited for safety reasons, may siill cause a serious shock under some conditions. Some types of equipment, such as plasma, may employ very high voltages. In the majority of electrical circuits one part of the circuit is connected to the ground. For example, the white, “neutral” wire entering your house is connected to the ground. The red and black wires are the “hot" cr live wires and are not connected to the ground (Fig. 7), yore we (ebcack ore ‘eee you comple Fig. 7. In most electrical circults one wire Is ‘connected to the ground. In house circuits the white “neutral” wire is connected to the ground at the servee entrance. The other wires, black or red, aro live. 18') LEARNING CENTRE ‘When one partofan electrical circuitis connectedtotheground,it is only necessary for the body to touch onellive conductor fora current to fiow through the body and cause a shock. The current can return through the ground (Fig. 8). Anything that increases the electrical contact with the ground increases the risk of shock. For example, standing inwater or working with wethands. Fig. 8. Completion of an electric circuit through the ground. | ‘There may be secondary hazards associated with electric shocks ‘Action in the event even when the shock is small and does not cause any direct damage. ‘of shock Asudden joltcould cause the worker to slip and fall, possibly froma high place, orcause some other injuryto himself Ifa workmate suffers an electrical shock, these are some of the actions totake: + Donot try and pull the casualty from a live contact (unless there is no alternative). + Disconnect and tum off the power first then remove the casualty from contact. + Ifthe rescuer mustresortto pulling a casualty from alive contact, he must insulate himself with gloves or similar protection, + Ifthe casualty is not breathing, give artificial respiration. |f the casualty 1as no pulse, and if you have been trained, give CPR (cardiopulmonary resuscitation). + Call for medical help. + Keep the casualty horizontal and warm. + Check the casualty for entry and/or exit wounds. St. John Ambulance advises that an electrical shock can violently throw acasualty. Head, spinal injuries, fractures and dislocations may result. Always thoroughly inspect an unconscious person and ‘await medical help before moving, if possible. 19') LEARNING CENTRE Avoiding electrical hazards Correct electrical connections Donotundertake work for which youhavenotbeen trained andare notqualified todo. Any electrical work, including installing plugs and outlets, mustbe done by a qualified electrician. The high voltage inputcable should be kept shortandbe protected atalltimes. Donot, or example, lay steel onitor drive a fork lftover it, Before plugging or nplugging the high voltage input cable, tum the disconnect switch off. When turning the disconnect switch to “on” stand toone side. Ensure that the welding equipmentis correctly connected. One cable from the welding machine is connected to the electrode holder. The current from the power source flows through this cable to the arc then through the workpiece and retums to the welding machine through the work lead. The work lead is mot the ground lead, Itis there to complete the electric circuit. The work piece may be connected to a metal table or something similar which is in turn ‘connected via the work lead to the welding machine. Fig. 9 shows the electrical connections for arc welding, Work lead complete circuit Fig. 9. Electrical connections for arc welding. Itis essential thatthe work leadmake.a good electrical contact with the workpiece. Iftrere is abad connection, the current will try to find another path back the power source through the grounding system, possibly causing damage. Check that there is no paint or grease preventinga good connection. 20LEARNING CENTRE Grounding | Ifthe work lead terminalis ‘connected to the grounded case, this wire size must be smaller tran ae (atleast 2 ‘AWG higher) Insome cases the welding currentmaybe allowedto retumthrough ‘a metal structure such as a pipeline. This is not allowed ifthe pipe car¥riesgases or flammable liquids. Neither mustthecurrentbe carried acrossithreaded, flanged, bolted, or caulked joint. Never allow welding current to be carried by cranes, hoists, wire ropes, elevator structures or similar devices, and ensure cables are located where they cannot be physically damaged. The frames of power sources, control panels, etc., must be connected to an approved ground. The workpiece, too, must be separately grounded, preferably at the workpiece itself but alter- nately at the welding machine. Grounding of the workpiece prevents it becoming “ive” in the event of a fault in the machine transferring high primary voltages to the secondary side. Workpiece grounding also prevents the electrode voltage—relative to ground— “floating” above 80 V under open circuit conditions. If the workpiece is grounded at the machine by a wire to the grounded enclosure, the ‘wire must be smaller than the ground wire (Fig. 10). Fig. 10. Grounding at the power source. 2') LEARNING CENTRE Cables Ensure that all cables are of the correct size to carry the current. ‘This applies to both the welding cable and the worklead, Undersize cables could cause averheating and ignite a fire. The size of cable dependson the duty c/cie whichis the proportion of ime that the current is actually flowing anc isdefined as the number of minutes thatcurrent flows foreverytenmirute period. Table 3gives the recommendedsize forduty cycles up to 60%—typical for manual welding, Table 3. Cable sizes for average marual metal arc welding duty cycles . Welding Copper cable current, A size No. 100 4 200 2 300 10 400 210 ‘500 anv 600 m0 Notes Based on sate operating temperatures, average cable length of 36m. For automatic or semiautomatic welding with duty cycles up to 100%, cables shall be in accordance with CSA C22.2 and C22.1. Long cables mustbe larger than short cables, butexcessively long cables should be avoided. Use the shortest cable thatis practicable. Do not wind the cable around your body (Fig. 11). Keep electrical connections tight, clean, and dry sothey donotheatupor cause sparks|) LEARNING CENTRE Fig. 11. Do not wind the cable around yourself. Donotuseanywatercooled equismentorwelding gunsifanyeaks exist. To prevent condensation on cold water hoses from runninginto | electrical equipment, place aloop in the hose (Fig. 12) Fig. 12. Use of @ drip loop to prevent condensation running into a machine. With automatic welding equipment the welding current is con- ducted through the electrode wire. The spool of wireis therefore live" Toten while the arcis burning. Itis particularly important to remember this where the wre is fed long distances. For example, wire froma large pay-off packmay be fed over pulleys long distances toarobot. In most ‘equipmenttre welding currentis only turned on bya contactor when the wire is being fed and the arc can burn. In some equipment, such as voltage sensing wire feeders used without contactors, the wire and spool can be''ive" withoutthe arc buming or thewire beingfed. Under these conditions the operatoris exposed tothe fullopen circuit voltage (usually 80 V) of the power source. This hazard can be reduced by installing separate contactors. 23LEARNING CENTRE | ____Radiationis a way in which energy can be transferred from one location toanotherir the formofelectromagnetiowaves, Thedifferent | _ types ofradiation aredistinguishedby their wavelength or frequency as showninFig. 13. Radiationcan pose anumber ofhazards which again dependon the wavelength andalsoon the intensity Logarithm of wavelength in ym 10 8 6 4 2 ° 2 4 4 Radio Short radio waves - microwaves Infra Ute Visible Electric are ph Fig. 19. Electromagnetic spectrum showing how diferent types of radiation are characterized by their wavelength Radiation may te classedaseitherionizing ornor-ionizing. The ionizing radiation has ashortwavelengthandcan damage ving cls Itcan cause serious shortterm and longtermhealthetfectsand canbe fatalinsuficientdoses, X-raysand gammaraysusedinthe radiogra- |__phyofweldsareoftheionizing type and special safety precautionsmust | Beentakenwhen using them, These mustonly be used by specially | trained people. Thewarning symbol forthis type of radiation is shown Types of radiation 414, lonizing radiation (X-rays) can also be emitted with certain ‘welding processes suchas electron beam welding FIRST AID TIP FOR RADIATION BURNS: Give first-aid based on the visible signs of injury. St. John Ambulance recommends following treatment procedures for heat | bums as outlined in the next pages. 24') LEARNING CENTRE Fig. 14. Warning symbol for ionizing radiation including X-rays and g rays (magenta against a yellow background). © It is the responsibiliiy of the certified radiographer to designate unsafe areas during the radiography of welds. Watch {for and obey thes wamings! Thenononizing radiation emitted by welding arcsincludes visible, ‘Arc rays ultraviolet, and infrared light Fig. 16). The hazards fromnon-ionizing radiation encountered with the common welding processes.are mainly burns, skindamage, andeyedamage. While skindamageismainlythe resultofultraviolet radiation, eye damage can occur from ultraviolet, visible, andinfrared radiation, BURN TO THE SKIN: Coolaffected area immediately torelieve pain and prevent furtherinjury, + Coverburn only with a clean, int-Aree dressing, + Seek medical attention and/or treatment. Yee | 5 Fig. 15. Radiation emitted by an are, Skin, exposed tothe ultravioletradiation in arcrays even fora few | minutes wll suffer burning similar to sun burn. Aswith sun burn you may notknow thisis happening tthe time, butlaterthe skinwillbe red andsore. Ultraviolet The most common injury suffered by welders from radiation is Are flash damage to the eyes from arc rays. Very short exposures (just a few seconds) cen cause damage—often called”arceye", ‘welders’ eye" or“arc flash’. Again, the painful effects may not be felt until several hours after exposure, BURNS TO THE EYES: + Symptoms of eye burns include sensitivity to light, pain and gritty feeling in the eyes Treaiment: Place clean, damp, cool dressings on eyes and seek medical help immediately. 25LEARNING CENTRE ‘The eyes must always be protected when welding by using a welder’s helmet with the correct shade inserted. Table 3 gives a list of recommended shade numbers for welding and cutting operations. Welder helmets fit over the head and are hinged so that they can be Table 3. Guide for shade numbers for welding (CAN/CSA-W117.2). (Consult orignal for other processes). ating and Gouge ‘anima Siapesied Betas S28, ‘ecumert — Prtoane Shae he pecan ra in * Sraae “comet ‘Susi lesinen25 asa) estan 25-4 esa w-160 ‘0 ane 6-4) 160-250 2 rroethan8« 290-550 “4 ‘oun ‘esha 60 i ‘es m-10 8D " seo-20 10 2 Fea ros 10 “ ‘Avcaton aceding Oat) feestnan 0010 2 ‘Arcane av etna ea) sm-10 0 “ Pasa we cing an serve suas ey pee 20 8 5 Pasma ate ciing an soa a ° sessing on Pasa wr cig nt : raseascceaed to-40 2 Pasa scat na ‘ 1 sea heen oun e iw casting Waimam Pate Taran, Praecwe Suggested rm om Stes” Shwe No, Onygenesting _nder2s (unser 3 ‘ cat (redum 2510180 owe) 4 6 (vem) over 160 (overs) 5 . Notes: For thermite, laser, and electron team welding, consult the manufacturer for eye protection recommendations, For pulsed GMAW, use peak current for Selecting the appropriate shade number. For underwater weding, the minimum shade number may not necessarily apply. “Turbcity of the water may also aft the shade number tobe used. 26') LEARNING CENTRE Fig. 16. A welder's helmet for arc welding. reisedafterwelding. Awelder’s helmetisshownin ig. 1and goggles for gas welding are illustrated in Fig. 17. Handheld shields or masks are available and are useful for observers. Inallcases, safetygiasses (Fig. 18) should be worn under the helmet to protect the eyes from flying particies(e.g., whenremovingslag). Safety lasses shouldhave side shields or extra protection. EYE INJURY: + Fapatticleis loose anditisnotembedded in the comea, remove itwith the moist comer ofa facial tissue or a clean, lintfree cloth, + WARNING: Nevertry toremove any objectimbedded in the eyeball or surrounding tissue. Never rub the eyeball to remove an object stuck to it + Fan objectis not visible in the eye socket but can be felt ty the casualty, seek medical attention. Fig. 17. Goggles for gas welding, brazing, or cutting. 2') LEARNING CENTRE ‘The wearing of contact lenses may not be advisable since dust particles or chemicals may ritate the eye. Reports of contact lenses being’ welded’ tothecomneaasthe resultofaflash have, however, been refuted. fe ge Fig. 18. Safety glasses. They should be wom under a welder's helmet. epaseabe ers — ——— Welding poses potential hazards to other workers as well as the ‘welder. Thisis particularly true for the hazards from arcrays. Those aroundawelding station may inadvertentlybe looking directly atan arc whenitis struck andsufferfromarcflash. Justworkingneara welder may result in skin burns due to the ultraviolet rays emitted. Other | workers may be exposed o rays that are reflected from walls or other surfaces. Reflectionof ultraviolet radiation is particular'y likely when gas tungsten or gas metal arc welding isused on aluminumorstainless, steel. Anyone withinabout25m (75 ft) ofan unshielded welding area shouldweareye protection. Itisimportantto note that not all ofthe UV, IR, andobviously visible spectrumis absorbed by transparentmaterials like clear glass or plastic. Therefore, eye protection with a minimum shade should be wom by observers andassistants. Other workers Fig. 19. Typical screens around a welding area. 28‘) LEARNING CENTRE. Bums and fires Fig. 21. should be so marked to warn others. ‘Where possible, welding activities should be shielded by using a welding booth, curtains, portable screens and so forth, so as to minimize the risk of other workers being exposed to welding hazards (Fig. 19). Screens and partitions must be specially designed for the purpose, must be fire resistant, and should be finished in a way that minimizesrefeections. They shouldalsobe openatthe bottomtoallow ventilation, ardseparate shields to preventthe escape of spatter from the welding area may be required. Transparent screens are not intendedas welding fer plates and shouldnot be used for continuous viewing oftheare. In addition to the risk of burns from radiation, there is the obvious hazard of buris and fires from hot metal. Most arc welding produces sparks and spatter—small droplets of molten metal ejected from the weld zone (Fig 20)—which may travel considerable distances. Fig. 20. Spatter. Small droplets of ‘molten metal ejected from the weld zone. ‘These could cause burnsif allowed to strike exposed skin, and could ignite fires if they come into contact with flammable materials. In addition, the workpiece willbe hot after weldingand insome cases may be preheatedbefore welding. It may not be obvious by its appearance that piece ofmetalishot, and hot pieces should be marked (Fig. 21). MOLTEN METAL BURNS: + Cool affected area immediately to reduce pain and prevent furtherbumning, + Do net attempt to remove metal stuck to the skin. + Cleanse the area with clear, cool water. + Seek medical help. Pieces of hot metal 29LEARNING CENTRE Clothing | Torreduce the risk of bums from hot metal, proper clothing and gloves must be worn. Protective clothing should be heat and fire | resistant, longsleeved, and pants should nothave cuffs thatcouldtrap hotmetal. Gloves shouldbe of the gauntlet type thatoffer protection to the wrist area. Do not wear rings or jewelry. Fig. 22 illustrates the protective clothing recommended for welding. Ears should also be protected from burnsand particulate matter, for example by using ear plugs. IF YOUR CLOTHING CATCHES FIRE: + Stop, dropandroll. Keep rolling back and forth unti ames canbe smothered. + WARNING: Do notrun if clothes are on fire. This only fans the flames end increases the risk of injury. Ear protection SAY fp Host ‘esistant Nout Fig. 22. Protective clothing for welding. G 30") LEARNING CENTRE Hotmetal, spatter, and the arcitself may presentariskofigniting a fire or causing an explosion ifammable materialis nearby. Ensure that nocontainers of cleaning fluids or other flammable materialsare near the welding station. 1f welding high up, remember that sparks and spatter can travel great distances and pose a hazardto other workers, Fires stom ——b—____| Horizontal distances: Vertical distances Fig. 23. Typical travel distances for hot metal particles in welding and cutting. | ormay causea fire (Fig. 23). When welding youshould always be alert tothe possib ltyoffires. Fire extinguishers should beprovided.and you should know how to operate them. After welding, carefully checkthe areatoensure there are nosmouidering fires, sparks, orhotmetal that Couldignite afire. Itisnot uncommon forfires toignite in atime period after the welding hasbeen completed. 31) LEARNING CENTRE ‘The fume and smoke that is usually seen rising from a welding operation is composed of many tiny particles of solid material thatcame fromthe electrode, flux, or metal being welded (Fig. 24). Therange of particle sizes is shown compared with other particulates in Fig. 25. The electrode is the greatest contributor. The fume particles will be Fumes Fig. 24. Sources of fumes in arc welding. Parle diameter, um 4000 10000 0001 0901 oot ot tt tem) (lem) Very fre dustertume Fine dustcrhime Coarse dust. Fig. 25. Typical range of partice sizes for airborne particulates. 320D LEARNING CENTRE Fume components ‘mixed with various gases. Breathing the fumes may present health hazards ranging from discomfortto long ermillness depending onthe ‘amountof exposure andthe constituentsin the fume. Table 5 shows typical analyses ofthe constituents of welding fume from various types of electrodes. With common structural steels the major componentof the fume is iron in the form of oxides, and other components have @ Table 5. Typical analysis of welding fume. (From AWS study) Concentration, weight % Electrode Fe Mn Si_Ni cu Cr Mo Al Mg F ‘Carbon and low alloy steel E6010 475.30 67 - - - - = - = E7018 2145 a2 - - - - =~ = 184 E7024 aoa 8018C3 rie 7) ers Se CR A) 901883, 219 59 - Of - 16 <01 - - 284 Stainless steel and high alloy 316-16 100 88 - 18 - 65 01 - - 172 E410-16 See ENiCu-2 o1 21 - 42 62 - = - - - Inconel 625 eee ore ee relatively low concentration. When welding other metals, stainless steel or non-ferrousalioys, other components can formalarge propor- tion ofthe fume. Some alloy elements may produce particularly toxic ‘componentsin the fume. For example, some copper alloys contain beryliumwhichis highlytoxic. Inaddition, there may be toxiccomponents that originate from the consumable that are not present in the base metal. Itis therefore essential toknow what you are welding and what ‘consumable is being used, and to be sure that the procedures for avoiding exposure to the fume are adequate. The health effects of components found in welding fumes are summarized in Table 6. BREATHING EMERGENCIES: Give first aid for the ABC's: Airway, breathing and circula- tion. Ensure the casualty has plentiful supply of fresh air. Monitor breathing rate and depth, Check the pulse ofthe casualty atregularintervals. + Ifsymptoms persist more than a couple of minutes, seek medizathelp.LEARNING CENTRE Table 6. Summary of possible health effec's from components in welding fumes. [Conraunanrs cenenaTeD raow weisin, COTTNG, OR ALLIED PROCESSES ] — os Te _. the Lung _ndioe Systemic Poisoning — vers Posons: Cacia =. chemical ‘Ovone Fuordes crm Ty jam} | coer ow soz] [era] free] | BF we aa Se) (eee Manganese Helium “er — — | hen Propane *Dielacs beating a m Inaddition to the metal and the electrode, fumes may be produced from coatings and residues on the metal (Fig. 26). Galvanized sheet, for example, has a coating of zinc which vaporizes when welded. Exposure to zincfurre can resultin “zincfever’ or“metal ume fever Thisisan acute reaction characterized by fu-like symptomsand chills fromwhich the patient usually recovers ina few days. Paint or other coatings can produce fumes with harmful compo- nents. Cadmiumandlead, forexample, couldbereleasedintothefume whenwelding over certain types of coatings andpaints. Inthese cases ee ZL a source of hazardous fumes. 34') LEARNING CENTRE Fume generation rate the coating should be removed from the weld area where possible to minimize the fume. This could also have a beneficial effect on weld uaiity by avoiding gases fromthe coating that could cause porosityin theweldmetal. “The rate et which welding fume is producedis usually measuredin terms of weichtper unit time, e.g.,. gimin. and can be measured ina special fume cabinet such as the one shown in Fig. 27. The fume «generation rate depends on many factors, the main ones beingthetype Cf welding process, the consumable, andthe current. The submerged Fig. 27. Fume cabinet for measuring fume generation rates. Welding is carried out inside the cabinet and the ‘atmosphere is exhausted by the pump. Fume is collected on a fiter at the top of the cabinet. arcwelding process (SAW) produces verylittiefume because the arc iscoveredbygranularflux. Incontrast, high fume generation ratesmay bbe experienced with some shielded metalarc(SMAW)electrodesand flux cored arc welding systems (FCAW). Typical rates for various processes are shownin Table 7 and theeffect of currentlevelis shown in Fig. 28. Fig. 29 shows some typical results for the influence of electrode typ2 on ume generation rates for shielded metal arcwelding (SMAW), 35') LEARNING CENTRE Table 7. Typical fume FCAW GMAW (steel) [GMAW (aluminum) generation rates for various processes. ‘Typicalrange" (g/min) 02-12 10-36 01-05 5 on “Actual values will depend on many factors including current and electrode type. though the fume generation rate measures therate atwhich fume | isproduced andis useful for comparing processes, itcannotbe used directly to determine the amount of fume that someone could be breathing. As the fume is produced it becomes dispersed and the amountthatis being breathed depends onthe density ofthe fume cloud. ee ge es ws generation C02 cored Fig. 28. Typical effect of = 2 Pe os, ~ Co GMA (C02) rate. 36) LEARNING CENTRE Fey > L u i : 3 3 3 i aoe ; i i pod 3 i : 8 i ales x 2 7 é : i 4 3 5 2 7 Fig. 29. Typical effect of 1°—- : 3 2 ‘electrode types on fume 7 : i generation rates. g bE q z otf oo oa ao a; i: ; = Exposure to fume is therefore measured in terms of the airborne Concentration concentration of particulates (Fig. 30) in mg/m? or ppm (parts per milion). Fig. 30, Exposure to fume is determined by the concentration of fume in the air breathed by the welder. It is usually measured in mg/n® or in parts per million (opm) 37') LEARNING CENTRE During the day the fume concentration will vary as illustrated in Fig. 31 and there are several ways in which the exposure can be characterized: the instantaneous valueatany pointintime; the average value fora short perod (say 15 min); and the time weighted average cover a longer period of several hours. The time weighted average (TWA)isthe value usually measuredand used in determining compli- Fig. 31. Illustration of variation of fume concentration during a working day. Allowable exposure ‘ance with limits. Itcan be determined by sampling air nearthe welder's breathing zone using small pumps and iter media which are weighed before and after the sampling period (Fig. 32). Allowable levels of exposure to welding fume have been set by several bodies incuding the U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOS#), and the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH). Theseallowablelimits arerecommen- dations and not nezessarily legal mits. Jurisdictions may legislate maximum exposure levels which may or may not be similar to these values. The ACGIH publishes a list of Threshold Limit Values (TLV, which is a registered trade mark of ACGIH) which are guidelines for allowable exposures. The most widely used is the Threshold Limit Value - Time Weighted Average(TLV-TWA). Thisis the time weighted average concentration foranormal hourwork day anda 40hour work ‘week, towhich nearly allworkersmay be repeatedly exposed, day after day, withoutadverse effects. Itisimportantto remember thatthe TLV is not a fine line between safe and dangerous concentrations and shouldnotbe usedby anyone untrained in the discipline ofindustrial hygiene, 38) LEARNING CENTRE Fig. 32. Example of device (above) used for air sampling to determine exposure to welding fume. A constant flow pump ‘draws air from the welder's breathing zone through a filter ‘seen mounted in the helmet at right. 39’) LEARNING CENTRE TLVs for welding fume Since the time weighted average allows a swing in the actual concentration, ACGIH also ists Short Term Exposure Limits (STEL) and Ceiling (C) values for many substances. The TLV-STEL is the concentration towhich a worker can be exposed continuously (provided the TWA isnot exceeded) fora short period of time without suffering from: + ietation + chronicorirreversible tissue damage + narcosis of sufficientdegreeto increase the likelihood of accidental injury, impairselF-rescue, ormaterially reduce workefficiency. Itis based ona 1Sminute time weighted average which should not be exceeded at any time during the work day. Only fourexposuresper dayatthe STEL are allowed anda minimum of 60 minutesis required between exposures. The ceiling value (TLV-C)is the (instantaneous) concentration that shouldnotbe exceeded at any time during the work day, evenforshortexposures. TLVs for a number of components that could be present in welding fume are given in Table 8. TLVsare given for welding fume as a total mixture es well as for individual components found in welding fure. In many cases where no toxic elements are present in the welding materials, the total fume TLV will be adequate to determine allowableexposure, butin some cases the concentration of the individual components may dictate the allowable exposure. ‘Asan approximate guide, for structural stee's with alloying elements less than 5% and chromium content less than 3%, the total fume dictates allowable exposure, and the TLV of 5 mg/m*is applicable. For steels with highar alloy contents, and particularly for stainless steels, the concentration of the individual components determine the TLV. If itis assumed that the effects of individual components are additive (not independent and not synergistic) then the TLV for the mixture is: where C, is the concentration of the nth component and T,, its individual TLV. In epplying this to welding fume itis clear that the 40LEARNING CENTRE Table 8. TLVs for various fume components (trom ACGIH 2004) Substance TWA mgim? Welding fume not otherwise classified 5 Welding ume (aluminum) 5 Barium, soluble compounds, as Ba os Berylium and compounds (0.002, Az ‘Cadmium oxide, total fume as Ca 0.01, A2 ‘Cadmium oxide, respirable dust 0.002, A2 Calcium oxide 2 Carbondioxide 9.000 Carbonmonoxide 23 Chromium metal, Cr), Cr(ll}) compounds, as Cr 05,84 Chromium (V1) compounds, water soluble, as Cr 0.05, 41 Chromium (Vi)compounds, wateringoluble,asCr 0.09, At Copperfume 02 Fluorides, as F 25 Iron oxide fume, as Fe 5 Magnesium oxide fume 10 Manganese, dust and compounds, as Mn O2" Manganese, fue 02 Nickel, soluble compounds, as Ni on Nitrogen dioxide 3 zone 0.2(Ceiting) Phosgene (carbonyichloride) oa Phosphine hydrogen phosphice) 03 Silica, fused, respirable dust 04 Titaniumdioxide 10 Zinc oxide, tune 2 Notes: TLV's aro reviewed every year. Reter tothe current ACGIH Threshold Limit Values publication for current values. ‘i Confirmed Human Carcinogen ‘AZ Suspected Human Carcinogen AS Nofclassifable as a Human Carcinogen "Indicates that @ proposed change to the TLV has been made but is as yet Lnadopted. Refer fo current TLV publication to see ifthe value has changed. fume must be quantitatively analysed to determine the components, ‘The sidebar cn the next page shows the application of this formula to fume from two types of electrodes. a> LEARNING CENTRE (Total fume or individual components? ‘Suppose an E7018 electrode and an £316-16 stainless steel electrode both produce a total ume concentration of 5 mgim?. Does the total fume concentration or the individual components dictate the expasure? A typical analysis of the fume might give the following values: E701Belectrode E316-16electrode TLV mgim* % concentration % concentration component mim? component mgim* Fe 10 08 Mn 9 045 Ni 18 0075 or 65 0.325 F 7 08s Mild steet: SOJT, = 14515 +0.21 40.725 =0.77 <4 Stainless steel: SC,/T, = 0.5/5 + 0.45/1 + 0.075)0.1 + 0.325/0.05 + 0.85/2.5 1454 ‘Since the sum C/T, is less than one for the mild s'vel electrode, the total fume concentration determines the exposure and the appropriate TLV is 5 mg/m, For the stainless steel electrode the sun C,/T, greatly exceeds one, and so the TLV is ‘exceeded based on the individual components. Ir this case the total fume TLV of 5 mgim*is notappropriate la component with a low TLV is present in welding fume the point at which the total fume concentration no longer controls exposure is giver approximately by. Sh of component x in fume TTLV of component x >20 For example, hexavalent Cr has TLV = 0.05 mgim'so the total fume concentration would ‘only control exposure when Cr <20 x 0.05 <1% 42LEARNING CENTRE Only the TLV-TWA (time weighted average) is given for total ‘welding fume and therefore thereisnoshortterm exposure limit(STEL) recommended. If, however, the individual fume components dictate | the exposure then STELs as well as TWAs might apply. Clearly the | _eppication oTLVs towelding fume in whichindividual components control exposure limits can be very complex. To simplify this and to minimize expensive chemical analyses, attempts have been made to establish total ‘ume exposurelimits for specificprocessesand materials ‘where the total fume limit is adjusted to take account of the likely differences infume composition. As an example, those proposed in Denmark are shown in Table 9. Table 9. Proposed process dependent exposure limits for total fume. Process Metal Exposure limit gin? saw Ms 34 GMaw Ms 34 Oxyfuel Ms 28 cutting craw ss 27 sMAW ss 16 | _ Thefirstapproachin controlling fume isto limitthe amountoffume produced at source. This may not always be possible but careful selection ofthe welding process and materials mayhelptominimize the amount of fume generated. A second approach is to reduce the ‘exposure tothe fume by removing itanda thirdby protecting the welder. Because welding can involve so many different conditions there is no single meansof controlling furne exposure. Rather,acontrol strategy must be devised for each case. Some general guidelines, however, have been developed and these are published in standards such as CSA W117.2 "Safety in Welding, Cutting, and Allied Processes.” | Tables 10 and 11 summarize these. Control of exposure to welding fume. | Useful guidance is also provided in the “Fume Information Sheets. for Welders” published by the International Institute of Welding (IIW) basedon sheets proposed by the Technical Advisory Groupon Health and Safety in Welding of Ontario Hydro. Examples ofthese forlowalloy steel, stainless, and aluminum consumablesare showninthe sidebars on pages 421045. 43) LEARNING CENTRE Table 10. Summary of guidelines for control of fume exposure (steel) Ventilation Guidelines for Welding of Uncoated Low-Carbon Steels (1) Degree of confinement in work area (3) Open Limited Production Out work work Confined Process level (2) door (4) space space space Gas preheating Normat N Nort M Le Gas welding High N te le Le Gas tungsten are welding (GTAW) N Norm M Le Flame outing Flame gouging Norma N Norm ™ Le Gas metal are Normal N Norm Le MELE welaing (GMAW) High N le i MALE Flux-cored arc Normal N Nort Le MaLE wolaing (FCAW) High N Le Le MaLE Shielded metal arc welcing (SMAW) Plasma are cutting ‘Normal N Le Le Le (Assessment by ar High N LE ot LE or LE&PRP sampling is often water water Needed In limited table table or confined spaces) Submerged are ‘Normal N N N N welding (SAW) High N N N N Electrosiag welding Electrogas welding Thermit welding Normal N w. Le Le [Ar carbon are High N Le LEapRP LEG PRP ‘gouging Resistance welding Normal N N M te High N M M Le Notes: (0) N= na vention, See Cause 101. (CSA W172.) IM mecranea! vontlaion, see Clauses 102, 103 oon exhaust vontaion see Cues 10. Pre - personal espratory protection see Cause (2) Hoh preaicton refers sutyeyeles sxesedng approxima 40% or igh amperage processes exceeding 280 A orth (3) Doge of cantnament © dered as felons: (pen lige war aoa wipeutcbstuctens "gpa fo outdoors and wind “fimo ie fo escape Lina wath area fat ds not f he defen of open Time & hindrod rom escaping “an opan ara may become ined when dors and windows ae closed during cal wear conned "indo smal comparmens enor Pwough mantles, fank, chamber, bole’ pres vessel ‘hime cannot escape (4) Yee mechanical wentistion recommended fy weiting cutcen, 2 fan may bo used fo asprse furs Goethe enter he ‘eating ze ae long as io fumes ae net conarinatng an aqjacent wor are, 44') LEARNING CENTRE Table 11. Summary of guidelines for contro! of fume exposure (nonferrous). Ventilation Guidelines for Welding of Nonferrous Materials (1) Degree of confinement in work area (3) Open Limited Recirculation Production Out work work Confined of exhaust Proc Contaminant (4)level (2) door (6) space space space __air (8) ‘Aluminum Auman Normal u ie le : ‘nidan ozone ‘Nigh (GTAW) Mu u ra : ign (Gna M Mave LEMPRP fo ‘Barun Baum ones Noma! Leer ie ie LEaPRP Ne and tune (Fea re Boryium Balla ‘any ‘locations LE 8 PRP or ne fos and ‘pec gove box fine Cadmium Cadiunexide Any ira LESPRPor ry peat glovebox Chremum ——Chromsumv Normal “ ie ie LERPRE No owe Her Neorpre LE te LEsPRe No High (sam) N & te (Copper ‘Copper oxides Normal « im ry teers High eo tf te tegen We ae Flasims ‘Ps Nora x ny = (ot eatcum, Hon : u & ira en HER (SAN) 300, ci tr potassum) Lead eae wanes Neat ™ uw LERPRP No Bon f tf LeaPRe No PRP Manganese Manganese any N 4 = LeaPRe ondes Nekel(7) Nickel tomes Noma ie ie LEEPRE No Hn LeorpRP LE ie LespRe No Hh saw) N N LeapRe Ne Zine ie axe Any N ie a Yes SF ag rn Oi eee Sa ra ec amie toon as Roce A anne one xy rime he seme Eg ee Scammers ci a a en Bt ey chr el whan dors antics ae cose dg cl wah cone al simi ees ag tan oj a Sar es ts ew Bounce ort) g ‘erect very ecormanded wer aur nay b sed dpe esto yen te mang one a8 12 wen ang evan ocr ogene fg sana Si) vre comin, 45LEARNING CENTRE Fume Data Sheet for LOW ALLOY STEEL WELDING CONSUMABLES, (Steel alloys having a total chromium, manganese, copper and nickel content less than 10%—typical welding electrode designations include £8018-C2, E9018-B3) POTENTIAL HEALTH HAZARDS ‘The welding of low alloy steels produces fumes containing relatively low concentrations of toxic ‘metals such as chromium and nickel. Prolonged (or repeated exposure to fume may produce respiratory irtation and cough. PRECAUTIONS ‘See page 45 for general precautionary measures forfume control Excessive fume levels can be generated in ow alloy steel welding, particulary for ux cored arc welding (FCAW) andfor shielded metalarcwelcing {(SMAW) at high current levels (for exemple with large diameter(3/16") electrodes). Certain self-shielded FCAWW electrodes contain barium compounds, which can produce high concentrations of this toxic agent in the welding fume. Symptoms of overexposure may include chest and stomach pain, cough, headache, and ‘muscle tremor or twitch, Use local exhaustequipment when weldinginan ‘open shoporsimilar workarea with the flux cored are process or when using large diameter elec- trodesand high current with the shieidedmetalarc process. Use iocal exhaust equipment or respiratory pro- tection when barium-containing self-shielded tux coredarc welding electrodes are involved. Follow manufacturer sinstructions onproperuse ofthese electrodes. (Based on the sheets om the Technical Advisory Group on Health and Safet in Welding of Ontario Hydro and 11) 46) LEARNING CENTRE Fume Data Sheet for ALUMINUM WELDING POTENTIAL HEALTH HAZARDS ‘The gas metal arc welding (GMAW) of aluminum wih magnesium (Mg) bearing wre fr example, ERS356) generateslargevlumesofweldn fume, although no spec toxic agents are present in thefume, Muchless ozoneisgeneratedthanwith silicon (Si) bearing wre. CONSUMABLES PRECAUTIONS Use local exhaust equipmentin an open shop or Sinilar workarea when welding aluminumwith the GMAW process and magnesium-bearing filer ‘Aluminum GMAW with siicon (Si) bearing wire (forexample, ER4043)can generate highlevelsof ‘ozone gas. Ozone can cause severe iitation of the nose, throat and eyes as well as chest ‘congestion and pain Unlike welding fumes, ozone can be generated ‘away fromthe arc, by heaction ofarcradiationon the surrounding ai. The gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) of alu- ‘minum produces relatively owlevels ofozcne and fume. Fillerwire compositionhasno influence on the amount of ozone or fume generated n GTA welding of aluminum, a7 Avoid use of siicon-bearing aluminum welding Wire when the GMAW process isempioyed. Ifthis is unavoidable, ensure fumes are removed from the workarea by mechanicalornatural entiation. The use of an alr-supplied respirator or hood is required when welding in confined spaces or poorly ventilated areas. Apply similar precautions to other personne! ‘working in the immediate area. ‘No special precautions are required when weld- ing aluminum with the GTAW process.') LEARNING CENTRE. Fume Data Sheet for STAINLESS STEEL WELDING POTENTIAL HEALTH HAZARDS ‘The welding of stainless steels produces fumes containing toxic metals, particularly chromium and, to a lesser extent, nickel. Symptoms of overexposure include nosebleed and respiratory tract nitation. Certain chromium compounds (hexavalent chro- ‘miumorchrome6)are suspectedof being cancer- causing agents. The fumes from shielded metal ‘arc(SMAW) and fuxcored arc FCAW) stainless steel welding consumables contain chrome 6 ‘compounds. However, the hazardous nature of these fumes has not been established. The gas metal arc welding (GMAW) of stainless steels generally produces ess fume than SMAW. cor FCAW, but this fume is somewhat richer in chromium and nickel. However, hexavalent Chromium compounds are not found in GMAW fume. GMAW of stainless steel can produce elevated levels of ozone gas, also a respiratory irritant ‘The gastungston arcwelding (GTAW) of stainless steels produces relatively low levels of fume or 48 CONSUMABLES PRECAUTIONS ‘Special precautions are required when welding Staintess steels, particularly by the SMAW or FCAWprocesses. Properimplementation ofthese precautionary measures wil minimize thepotential hheaith risk Every effort should be made to position the weld- e's head away from the fume plume. If general ventilation conditions do nat carry fumes away from personnel, use local exhaust equipment or ‘respiratoryprotection. Incanfined spaces orpoorly ventilatedareas, both localexhaustandrespiratoryprotectionare required when welding stainless steel with the SMAW or FCAW processes. lfgeneral ventilation conditions donotcarryfumes: away from personnel, use local exhaust equip- ‘ment or respiratory protection. I ozone appears to be @ problem, use an air- supplied respirator orhood. ‘No special precautions are required for GTAW of Stainless steeloutdoors orin wel ventilated areas Use local exhaust equipment or a metal fume respiratorin confined spaces or poorly ventilated areas.') LEARNING CENTRE General Health Hazards NOTE: Under most conditions, welding fumes are not toxic, particulay in situations of short or intermittent ‘exposure of the welder or operator. However, under certain conditions, hazardous concentrations of welding fumes can be encountered. The following ts precautionary measures to be takon when welding in general ‘Spenific hazards and appropriate precautonary measures aro gwen in the preceecing pages. Associated with Welding Fumes POTENTIAL HEALTH HAZARDS ‘Thehazardouseffectofweldingfumesdependson the fume generation rate (or the amount of fume produced in aunitoftime), the number of welding ares, the fume composition, and the working conditions or environment. Referencesto specific hazards are found in he preceeding pages. It should be recognized that although the fume {generation rate of gas metal arc welding nay be lessthan forotherwelding processes, the concen- tration of toxic agents in the fume can be substantially higher. ‘The welding fume generation rate with shielded rmetalarcwelding increases.asthe weldingcurrent or amperage increases. Unacceptable levels of fume may be encountered when welding at the Upper current evel fora particular electro Painted or plated surfaces, or coatings of zinc or coppermay release toxicemissionsuponeating with a welding ar. ‘Arc welding near chlorinated solvents may pro- duce toxic emissions when the solvent or the ‘vapours ofthe solventareexposedto the utavio~ letlight of the welding arc. PRECAUTIONS Welding outdoors or in a well ventilated area re- ‘quires no special fume removal measures. How- ‘ever, the welder or welding operator should attempt {o position himself such that the smoke plume from the arc does not enter his breathing zone Use local exhaust equipment or respiratory protec- tion’ when welding in confined spaces or poorly ventilated areas with the shielded metal arc, gas metal arc, oF flux cored arc processes, Itis good practice to use local exhaust equipment when welding in a shop or similar work area. Maintain welding current around the middle of the recommended current range for a given electrode, Higher deposition rates and greater heat input can be ‘achieved by using a larger electrode (at the mid- amperage range) without @ significant increase ia ume generation —ie, the fume generation rate of 1/ inch diameter electrode being used ata high amper- ‘age levels greater than that ofa 6/32 inch diameter telectrade being used at the mia-amperage level. ‘Remove painted or plated coatings near the weld ‘area by grinding or other means prior to welding. Do not conduct cleaning or degreasing operations at the same time as welding in a given work are, ‘Store chlorinated solvents in closed containers ‘away from the welding area. Remove all solvent residue from any components to be welded. Emergency If siness occurs due to fume inhalation: = Move to fresh air = Get medical attention if symptoms persis. * Respiratory Protection FRespiretory protection can be provided in several ways. “These inclide, in order of inezeasing protection factor 1 Metal fume or dust (carte type) respirator 2- Filtered sir supplied helmet ‘3 Breathing quality air supplied respirator or hood. BREATHING EMERGENCIES: Give first aid for the ABC's Airway, breathing and circulation. Ensure the casualty has a plentiful supply of fresh air. Monitor breathing rate and depth. Check the pulse of the casualty at regular intervals. + If symptoms persist more than a couple of minutes, seek medical help. 48") LEARNING CENTRE Work habits Fig. 34. Take advantage of natural venti Since fume forms a visible plume which rises from the welding zone, an obvious practice istokeep the head andbreathing zone out ofthe plume (Fig. 32). Thisreduces the exposure ofthe weldertothe fumes, but it does not remove the fumes and they could build up, particulariy ifwelding in aconfined space. Fig, 38. To reduce exposure fo fume keep your head out of the fume plume. General ventilation of the welding area may provide enough air movementtodilute the fume concentration toacceptable levels. Gen- eral, or dilution ventilation, may be natural or mechanical. For natural ventilation advantage can be taken of apen windows and so forth to reduce the fume concentration Fig. 34). Forwelding outsideitcannot always be assumed that natural ventilation is adequate. There are many outdoor situations where welding is confined and fume build-up eo > Mechanical ventiation mayinvolve simply usingportable fansnear the welding station ora more sophisticated system. The amountof air exchange required depends on many factors buta value of2,000 cubic feetperminute per welderhas typically been used asarough guide. An example ofan arrangementfor mechanical general ventiationis shown in Fig. 35. 50') LEARNING CENTRE iF S St Airgct Fig, 95. Example of arrangement for general ventilation. Localexheustinvolves capturing the fume at source andispreferred Local exhaust to dilution ventilation because the plume does not rise up past the welder’s breathing zone. There are three types of local exhaust systems: + fixed extraction system builinto the welding bench + Aportable hood with flexible ducting + Fumeextracting gunsorattachments, Fig. 36(a) shows a built-in system and Fig. 36(b) an intermedi- ale system that is neither local exhaust nor general ventliation These systems are only suitable for welding small components that can be broughtto the bench. Inorderto capture fume the air velocity across the arc should be about0.5mis(100 ft/min). Veryhigh airvelocities may disruptthe arc | shielding and cause poorweld quality. Fig. 36. Fume extraction systems. (a) shows a yo welding bench with builtn extraction system. (b) (0) ‘shows @ fixed hood over the bench 51LEARNING CENTRE Fig. 37. Hood with flexible duct connected to permanent yor installation. Awide range offiexiblehoodsystems are available. Some connect to permanent duct installations that exhaust to the outside of the Portable units building (Fig. 37) and others are portable units containing filters and | recirculate the air (Fig. 38). Local exhaust systems, however, must be operated correctly— particularly the placementofthe hood—ifthey are to be effective. Fig. 39 shows the effectof hood placement on fume capture, Fig. 38. Portable unit that recirculates filtered air. Atypical fume extractor gunis illustrated in Fig. 40. In some situations ventilation and exhaust will not be enough to controlexposure or nay not be practical. Under these circumstances Personal protection personal protection devices such as masks and respirators may be devices necessary. The selection and use of respirators is covered by CSA Standard 294.4, but expert advice will generally be required, and a | propermanagementandadministration systemshouldbein place. For | many routine situations a simple facepiece respirator mask (Fig. 41) 52") LEARNING CENTRE Fig. 39. In the (left) picture the hood ‘and does not ef . In the other picture the hood is correctly placed. Fig. 40. Fume extracting welding gun. willprovide adequate protection. Thisconsists ofamaskcoveringhalf the face witha replaceable filter thatremoves particulate matter such ‘as fumesanddust. To beeffective there must be a good seal around therim, andbeards and moustaches should not be wom. These masks ‘donotprovide additionalairnor do themechanicalfiters remove gases. Thusthey donotofter any protection ifthe atmospheres low in oxygen 53») LEARNING CENTRE Fig. 41. Common type of facepiece respirator half-face mask containing a replaceable filter. | of contains hazardous gases, Disposable, single-use dust masks ‘may give limited protection from welding fume buttheyare not generally recommended, particularly when the fumehastoxic components. A variety of respirators providing air from a remote source are available. These include the hose mask respirator comprising a mask pare connected toa hosewhich may have a blower to assist the flow of air ‘and he airline respirator which contains a control vaive to control the flow ofairto the breathing zone (Fig.42). Noneofthese devices should be relied upon where the atmosphere is above the “immediately dangerous'olife orheaith (IDLH) level. For extreme conditions various ‘typesofself-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA) areavailable, Fig. 42. A supplied air respirator. A control valve controls the air flow to the face mask.') LEARNING CENTRE Gases Hazards from gases There are two classes of gases thatare of interest: those used for welding, cutting, and shielding; and those produced during the welding orcutting prozess. Health and Safety aspects of gases for cuttingand handling of cylinders are discussedina separate section whileaspects of exposure to gasesare discussed here. Table 12 lists a numberof important gases used orproduced during welding, Itisimportanttouse the correct name for each gas. Donot call oxygen, “air,” forexample. Table 12. Important gases used or produced in welding. Gases used Gases produced oxygen ozone nitrogen dioxide Fuel gases carbon monoxide ‘acetylene carbon dioxide naturalgas hydrogen chloride hydrogen phosgene propane butane Shielding gases argon hhelum carson dioxide nitrogen ‘Themainhazards fromgasesare: asphyxiation, freor explosions, and toxicity (Table 13). Some of the gases are relatively harmiessin ‘small quantities (carbon dioxide forexample)butin large quantities may dilute the oxygen inthe airenoughto cause suffocation (asphyxiation). Airisa mixture ofroughly 21% oxygen and 79% nitrogen with very small quantities of afew othergases. Weneedatleast 18% oxygeninthe air tobreathe preperly. Breathingairwithless than 18% oxygen cancause dizziness, unconsciousness, oreven death the oxygen contentdrops lowenough. Some authorities specify 19.5% as theminimumacceptable oxygen content. Oxygen contents above the normal 21% presenta danger of over supply as well as increasing the risk of fire and explosions, Shielding gases such as carbon dioxide, helium, and argon freely enter the air after performing their function as a shield around the arc, and other gases may enterthe air from leaks. As gases build 85') LEARNING CENTRE Table 13. Hazards and health effects of gases. Gas Effect ‘Ozone Nitrogen oxides Carbon monoxide Carbondioxide Hydrogen chloride Phosgene ‘Argon Helium Nitrogen Hydrogen Fuel gases Initation of nose, throat, lungs Excess mucous secretion, ‘coughing. Delayed initation and toxicetfect ‘on upper respiratory tract Excess fuid in lungs. Onxyger deficiency Drowsiness, headache, nausea Fatalovygen starvation. Oxyger deficiency Asphiyxition. Delayed inrtation and toxic effect ‘on upper respiratory tract Excess fluid in lungs. Delayed irtation and toxic eftect ‘onupperrespiratory tract Excess fluid in lungs. Asphypdation | Asphyation Asphypéation Explosion, fe, asphyxiation Explosion, fire, asphyxiation up they displace the air. Precautions must be taken to ensure the air being breathed does notbecome lowin oxygen. Some points tonote are: Precautions with shielding gases + Argon is heavier than air and will tend to sink. It will tend to accumulate in the lower portion of a confined space (Fig. 43). + Helium is lighter than air with a tendency to rise. Itwill collect in the upper portion ofa confined space. + Do not bring shielding gas cylinders into a confined space for welding. + Ensure that adequate ventilation is provided. 56') LEARNING CENTRE. ‘Some gases produced during welding are highly toxic with low TLVs. Thes2 must be considered alongwith the fume in determining precautionsto take to ensure exposures acceptable. Fig. 43. Argon is heavier than — air and could collect in the ower portion of @ confined a0 fo space displacing the alr. Ozoneisformedby the interaction of ultraviolet light, emitted from the are, with oxygen in the air (Fig. 44). Ithas pungent smell and is, Ozone respiratory iritant. Exposure can produce headaches, chest pain, shortage ofbreath andin high doses can produce pulmonary edema (fluid in the lungs) or death. Although the pungent smell is very Noticeable on frstexposuretoozone, continued exposure deadens the sense of smell so that the welder may be unaware of the extent of ‘exposure. AN aos Fig. 44. Ozone is formed from the action of ultraviolet light on oxygen. | __ The TLV-TWA for ozone is currently 0.1 ppm with a STEL of Vie 0.3 ppm, butitis intended to make the value of .1 ppma ceiling limit This TLV (0.1 ppm or 0.2 mgim’) is quite low and may easily be exceededeventhough the total fume concentrationis belowthe TLV of | Smgim*. Ozone may alsobe dfficultto control because itcan form well away from the arc. It does, however, naturally decompose back to ‘oxygenwhen welding stops. Some ofthe factors which promote ozone formationare shown in Table 14 and Fig. 45 shows schematically the effect of vollage. Ozoneis mostlikely to be a problem with gas metal arc welding (GMAW) of aluminum, particularly the 4043 aluminum- silicon filer alloy, but significant levels of ozone may be encountered when welding stainless steel. Ozoneis notusually a major problem in aT) LEARNING CENTRE Table 14. Factors influencing ozone formation. Control of ozone os ppm Factor Worst case Base plate ‘Aluminum Alloying elerients Silicon (in 4043 Al) Welding process Maw Current High current Voltage High voltage—tongare Shielding gas ‘Argon ‘welding structural steels when totalfume concentrations are below the Smgim* TLV, Because ozone can form remote fromthearcarea, local extraction may notbe effective. Across draft can be beneficial provided thegas shieldisnotdisturbedandnoworkers are positioned downstream ofthe contaminatedair flow. Itmay be possible to control ozone by changing the consumable orthe weldingprocedure. Ifitispossibleto substitute 5356 alurinumfilleralloy for4043 a significantreduction in ozone could beachieved. Helium shieldinggas produces less ozone than argonand lower welding currents beneficial. These measures, however, are oftennotpractical andgood ventilation and personal respiratory devices {supplemental reshair) mightbeneeded. Ozone potential can alsobe reduced by minimizing reflected ultraviolet light and in automatic, welding by surrounding the arcwith glass or plasticto absorb ultraviolet radiation. Anumber of other potentially hazardous gases can be producedin welding. When carben dioxideis used asa shielding gas, reaction with the hot metal can produce carbon monoxide. Nitrogen oxides may also beproduced rom thehigh temperature reactionofoxygen andnitrogen inthe airaround the arc. Adequate ventilation is required to keep the exposure to such gases downto permissible levels. Fig. 45. Effect of arc voltage on the formation of ozone. Welding votage 58") LEARNING CENTRE Metals coated with primers, paints, orother protective coatings may produce toxic gasesifthe coating isnotfirstremoved. The typeof gas produced dependson the composition ofthe coatingbutsomeexamples are: Gases from coated metals + Polyurethane coatings may produce formaldehyde and toluene diisocyanate. + Epoxy resins may produce hydrogen cyanide and carbon monox- ide. + Vinylmayrelease hydrogen chloride. + Rust inhibitors may release phosphine. In addition, as previously discussed, certain metal coatings and paints can release toxic fumes containing such elements as cad- ium, mercury, and lead. In many cases welding over coatings would not be permitted because of the resulting poor weld quality. But buming and cutting ofcoated meterialis very likely, particularly in repair or demolition work. In such cases adequate ventilation or personal protection will be necessary. Do not weld or cut any material that has an unknown coating. =I Bo oa ae ‘rom tho action of ultraviolet i light on the vapour of @ chlorinated hydrocarbon solvent. | Toxic gases, particularly phosgene, can be produced from the photochemical action of ultraviolet light on chlorinated hydrocarbon Gases from solvents vapours (Fig. 46). The vapour from degreasing solvents such as carbontetrachloride, trichlorosthylene and perchloroethylenemay react with ultraviolet rays to give phosgene, and hydrogen chloride. Such gases candoextensive damage tothe respiratory system, often before any symptoms appear. The TLV for phosgeneis0.1 ppm (0.4 mg/m*) which is very low. Phosgene is of particular concern because being heavier thanairit may notdissipate easily. The amountof phosgene produced depends on the solvent, and there are some solvents that produce relatively low levels ofphosgene. 9