') LEARNING CENTRE WELDING PROCESSES AND EQUIPMENT MODULE 4 Copyright © 2007 by The CWB Group - Industry Services Revised March 2007 All rights reserved ‘Aithough due care has been taken in te preparation ofthis module neither the CWB Learning Centre nor any contributing author can accept any liabilty arising {rom the use or misuse of any information contained herein or for any errors that ‘may be contained in the module. Information is presented for educational purposes and should not be used for design, material selection, procedure selection or similar purposes without independent verification. Where reference to other documents, such as codes and standards, is made readers are encouraged to consult the original sources in detail LEARNING CENTRE 7250 West Credit Avenue, Mississauga, ON LSN SN1 Tel: 1-800-844-6790/905-542-2176 Fax:905-542-1837, www.cwblearning.org) LEARNING CENTRE') LEARNING CENTRE Module 4 TABLE OF CONTENTS LESSON OBJECTIVES 1. 4A 12 13 14 15 2. 24 2.2 23 24 25 26 27 28 3. 34 32 33 34 35 38 INTRODUCTION TO WELDING PROCESSES Historical Background Welding Terms and Definitions Grouping of Welding Processes The Welding Arc Health and Safety GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING era) Principles of Operation . Current and Equipment . Welding Consumables . . Applications and Limitations Joint Design Arc Ignition (Starting the Arc) . Welder Technique Weld Quality SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING (SMAW) Principles of Operation . Power Sources . .. Types of Electrodes Classification of Electrodes Applications and Limitations of the SMAW Process ...... Shielded Metal Arc Welding of Carbon and Low Alloy Steels 50 51 55 56 59 6144 42 43 44 45 48 47 48 5.4 52 53 54 55 56 61 62 63 64 65 66 7A 72 73 84 82 83 84 85 LEARNING CENTRE GAS METAL ARC WELDING (GMAW) Principles of Operation eee Equpmente eee Metal Transfer Across the Arc in GMAW 20.2.2... Shielding Gases ..... Advantages and Limitations of the GMAW Process Electrode Wires for Gas Metal Arc Welding eeeaRnGnoser Application of Gas Metal Arc Welding Process. Effect of Arc Welding Variables in Arc Welding Processes FLUX CORED ARC WELDING (FCAW) Principles of Operation Equipment Advantages and Applications of the Cored Wire Processes . Classification of Cored Wires. Shielding Gases for Gas Shielded Tubular Electrodes . . Gas Shielded Flux Cored Arc Welding of Carbon and Low Alloy Steels ......-- 0.00000 SUBMERGED ARC WELDING (SAW) Principles of Operation Current Type and Equipment Advantages and Applications of Submerged Arc Welding... ‘Multiple Wire Submerged Arc Welding Wires and Fluxes for Submerged Arc Welding of Carbon and Low Alloy Steels . ‘Submerged Are Welding of Carbon and Lov Alloy Steels RESISTANCE WELDING (RW) Principles of Operation . Process Parameters ... nae Types of Resistant Welding Processes PLASMA ARC WELDING (PAW) Principles of Operation Process Variables Equipment for PAW Advantages and Disadvantages Applications . ee 74 76 +80 90 94 97 ‘100 110 112 113 114 421 122 128 129 130 133, 134 138 150 2154 152 162 163 164 = 166 1669. 94 9.2 93 94 10. 10. 10. 10. 11. " " 1" ') LEARNING CENTRE ELECTRON BEAM WELDING em) Principles of Operation... . Fey esae trees cr Equipment . : Advantages and Disadvantages Applications a LASER BEAM WELDING (LH) 1. Principles of Operation aa 2 Laser Types 3 Advantages and Disadvantages ELECTROSLAG WELDING (ESW) 1 Principles of Operation 2 Gquipinentf eee es ee 3. Applications 12, DIFFUSION WELDING (DFW) 12, 12, 12, 12, 1. Principles of Operation .... 2. Diffusion Welding Mechanisms 3 Bonding Variables 4 Applications 13. EXPLOSION WELDING (EXW) 13, 13, 13. 13. 14. 14, 14, 14. 14. 15. 15, 15. 1. Principles of Operation 2 Explosion Welding Parameters and Variables 3 Mechanisms of EXW 4 Applications .. FRICTION WELDING (FRW) .1. Principles of Operation ............ .2. Process Variables .3 Metallurgical Parameters 4 Applications ‘THERMITE WELDING (TW) 1 Principles of Operation ....... 2 Applications GUIDES AND EXERCISES TEST AND ANSWER SHEETS 168 169 -.-170 amt ATA 174 177 180 181 182 = 184 184 2-185 186 188 188 189 189 a 192 193 193 194 = 196 . 197 199 210) LEARNING CENTRE WELDING PROCESSES AND EQUIPMENT LESSON OBJECTIVES ‘The objective of this module is to provide a general description of the major welding processes available, with emphasis on the arc welding processes. The intent is to provide the reader with @ broad understanding of the principles of operation of the process, general process characteristics and equipment used. The processes covered in this module along with their letter designations are as follows: Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (STAW) Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) Flux Cored Arc Welding (FCAW) ‘Submerged Arc Welding (SAW) vvvyy Other welding processes include: Resistance Welding (RW) Plasma Arc Welding (PAW) Electron Beam (EBW) and Laser Beam Welding (LBW) Electrosiag (ESW) Diffusion Welding (DFW) Explosion Welding (EXW) Friction Welding (FRW) Thermit Welding (TW) vVVVYVVVY Important Notice: ‘This module has been updated to reflect the new electrods designations listed in CSA Standard W48. The reader will notice these changes throughout the madule and should be aware of them during their study of the ‘material. Examples of these changes are: (Old Designation: Designation in W48.06: ‘SMAW E41010 E4310 48018 E4918 ‘GMAW ER480S-2/ER498-2 180 14341-8.6 494 30 G2 FCAW E48017-5.Xx E491T-5XMJ SAW E480A5-EM12K E49AS-EM12K 4") LEARNING CENTRE Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION TO WELDING PROCESSES Historical Background Welding Terms and Definitions Grouping of Welding Processes . The Welding Are . Health and Safety BRAS>) LEARNING CENTRE 1. INTRODUCTION TO WELDING PROCESSES 4.1 Historical Background Until very recently in the history of mankind, the only method available to join metals was by forge welding which requires two pieces of metal to be heated and then pressed or hammered together to develop a metallurgical bond between the two. Modern welding technology can {race its origins to the first haif of the 19th century when advances in electrical technology such as the production of an arc between two carbon electrodes and invention of the electric generator took place. By the end of the 19th century, these advances had led to the development of three new welding processes; ar® welding, resistance welding and oxy- acetylene welding. The arc welding process in its numerous variations is now the most important and widely used welding process. The first major patent for arc welding was awarded in the UK to two Russians, Nikolas de Benardos and Stanislav Olszewski in 1885, who employed a carbon electrode as the positive pole to obtain an arc with the workpiece (negative pole). The arc heated the workpiece ‘comprising two adjoining pieces of lead or iron so that they locally melted and fused with each other. Soon thereafter, in 1889, Lavianoff in Russia and Charles Coffin in the USA were able to substitute a metal electrode for the carbon electrode. significant advancement in welding came with the use of a metal electrode, Carbon electrodes previously in use could not provide filer metal. Further advances and applications of the metal arc welding process depended on tre development of improved metal electrodes for greater arc stability and means to shield the molten weld poo! from contamination from the air surrounding the arc which embrittled the weld metal. ‘The earliest effort in this regard was the application of coating or covering to the metal electrode. Oscar Kjellberg of Sweden applied the coating by dipping short lengths of iron wires ina thick mixture of carbonates and silicates, and then letting them dry. The British were the first to attempt application of the arc welding technology on a significant scale as a substitute {or rivetting in the fabrication of ships. In the USA, around the same time at the start of World ‘War |, German ships interned in New York harbour and scuttled by their crews were rapidly brought back into service by effecting repairs using arc welding, The fist all welded ship, the Fulagar was launched by the British in 1920. During the 1920's, arc welding was applied for fabrication of heavy wall pressure vessels and buildings. In Canada, a 500 foot long, three span bridge having an all welded construction was erected in Toronto in 1923. However, widespread use of arc welding had to wait until 1927 when an extrusion process to economically apply covering to the electrode was developed. Electrodes for welding stainless steel, coverings that reduced the amount of hydrogen in the weld metal or that contained more easily ionized ingredients for arc stabilization were developed soon after.') LEARNING CENTRE In 1930, Robinoff was awarded a patent for submerged arc welding (welding under powder or flux, continuous wire without any covering) of longitudinal seams in pipes. Being a highly productive, mechanized process, itis stil vary popular for welding of thick steels. Use of externally applied gases instead of slag and gases formed from the electrode covering to shield the weld pool in arc welding had Figure 2.5: Current/Time Relationship for Pulsed Current GTAW Alternating current is used when the advantages of DCEN polarity as well as the cleaning action of DCEP polarity are needed. As incicated in Figure 1.10, alternating current provides penetration and cleaning action that are a compromise between DCEP and DCEN. There are problems in the use of normal 60 Hz alternating current. Essentially it can be visualized as switching between DCEP and DCEN, 120 tmes a second and going through an arc extinction/re-ignition step each time the polarity changes and current goes through zero as shown in Figure 2.6(a). When the polarity changes from DCEP to DCEN, the tungsten electrode is able to immediately emit electrons and reignite the arc. However, when the polarity changes next from DCEN to DCEP, the weld pool is not able to emit electrons as effectively due to its temperature and the presence of oxides. This leads to a delay in re- ignition of the arc which creates an unstable arc. This phenomenon is called partial rectification, 33’) LEARNING CENTRE DcEP Current DCEN Delay Delay Figure 2.6(a): Partial Rectification in AC Welding — Unbalanced Wave DcEP Current DCEN Figure 2,6(b): Inherent Rectification in AC Welding This problem was initially addressed by adding a high frequency generator to maintain a conductive (ionized) path while current flow changes direction. The next generation of power supplies were designed to supply a square wave output. Electronic switching is used to ‘change very rapidly from the electrode negative to the electrode positive half of the cycle so that the time at low power is even shorter. The newest generation of power sources use an additional power supply within the main power source enclosure to deliver an accurately timed second output that is opposite in polarity to the main output, thereby virtually eliminating the time at zero power. While the above described approaches increase arc stability, the welding current is higher in the DCEN half cycle because the tungsten electrode, due to its high temperature, emits electrons at a very high rate as shown in Figure 2.6(b). In the DCEP half cycle, as noted earlier, the electrons are not emitted as effectively and therefore the current is lower. The resulting imbalance in the current amplitude wave is called inherent rectification. Modern day electronic power sources are able to correct and control the imbalance in the wave since in certain applications, one can emphasize the cleaning action or the penetration by setting the imbalance at a specific acceptable level as shown in Figure 2.7. 34>) LEARNING CENTRE Electrode Postive 56 1 =: 8 O10 Max. Penetration Greatest Cleaning Action age Electrode _ 5 a 2 8 Elestode : 7 Negative oto Max. Cleaning Figure 2.7: AC Balance Control for Desired Weld Features GTAW Torch The GTAW torch conducts the electric current from the power source to the tungsten electrode and the arc, and also provides the shielding gas to protect the weld zone from atmospheric contamination. The torch may be gas cooled if its current carrying capacity is typically less than 200 A, or water cooled for higher currents. A cross section of a water cooled torch is shown in Figure 2.8. In a conventional torch, the flow of the shielding gas at a short distance after exiting the nozzle can become quite turbulent leading to ineffective gas shielding of the weld zone. Some nozzles are specially designed (internal streamlining, flared ends, elongated trailing section) to counter this, however, the use of a gas lens to provide laminar gas flow is the most effective. gas lens is made up of multiple layers of fine mesh screening and is designed to fit around the tungsten electrode or the collet as seer in Figure 2.9. By providing a longer region of uniform gas flow, the gas lens allows the walder to use a larger nozzle-to-work distance and thus have a better view of the weld pool. Gas lenses are most appropriate for welding of reactive metals and materials for service in severe corrosion environments. 35' LEARNING CENTRE: PShiesng motets cae —catttt ites Neamt gale | geen state Shetsne ae Figure 2.8: Schematic Cross-section of a Water Cooled GTAW Torch po cote ay ry ge —— Gas Cup SPEER aie Gas Lens — Gen Conaeeal Te eee sauce hte Cas. 225 sean a ela Tee wth Gas Los eucote Figure 2.9: A Torch With a Gas Lens 36) LEARNING CENTRE 2.3 Welding Consumables Tungsten Electrodes Tungsten electrodes are available with diameters ranging from 0.5 to 6.4 mm, and AWS Standard A5.12 makes provision for seven types of tungsten alloys for use as electrodes in the GTAW process. These alloys along with their AWS classification and application are shown in Table 2.1 Table 2.1: Tungsten alloys for GTAW [ Alloy Application | AWS Classification] Colour Code [Pure tungsten (Wp ‘AG & DC welding EWP Green [W196 thorium oxide DC welding Ewrh4t Yellow W- 2% thorium oxide DC welding EWTh-2 Red |W. 0.25% zirconium oxide ‘AC welding Ewzr-4 Brown W. 2% cerium oxide ‘AG & DG welding EWCe2 ‘Orange W. 1% lanthanum oxide DC welding EWLat Black {94.5% W, remainder specified ‘Specified by EWG Grey by manufacturer manufacturer In general, alloyed tungsten electrodes have a higher current carrying capacity. At a given current density, alloy electrodes operate at a lower temperature than do pure tungsten electrodes. Also, the alloyed electrodes provide greater arc stability, easier arc starting and less weld metal contamination due to erosion of the tungsten electrode. The choice of the type and size of tungsten electrode for an application depends on the operating current and current type as shown in Table 2.2. 7') LEARNING CENTRE Table 2.2: Typical Current Ranges for Tungsten Electrodes of Different Diameters Electrode | OCEN OEP | AC Unbalanced Wave ‘AG Balanced Wave Da (mm) | (ex | EW) | EWP EWXX EWP EWKX 168 70-150 | 10-20 50-100 | 70-150 | 30-80 60-120 24 150-250 | 15-30 | 100-160 | 140-295 | 60-130__[ 100-180 32 | 250-400 | 25-40 | 150-200 | 225-325 | 100-180 | 160-250 40 | 400-500 | 40-85 | 200-275 | 300-400 | 160-240 | 200-320 5.0 | so0-750 | 55-80 | 250-350 | 400-500 | 190-300 | 290-390 60 | 750-1000 | 80-125 | 325-450 | 500-630 | 250-400 | 340-525 Excessive current causes electrode erosion, ("spitting” tungsten droplets across the arc) causing contamination of the weld metal. At very low current the arc will wander erratically at the electrode tip and will be difficult to control. An electrode diameter should be chosen to operate near the higher end of its current carryirg capacity, without overheating, ‘Aluminum and magnesium are usually welded with alternating current. A variety of electrodes can be used. Pure tungsten electrodes are quite common. The ends of pure tungsten electrodes always melt, forming a ball equal to cr even larger than the original tungsten diameter. It is common to melt the end into a ball before use. This can be achieved by striking an arc on a piece of scrap or a copper block using AC or DCEP polarity. Large balls have a defocussing effect making it more difficult to make sound filet welds in aluminum. To solve this, alloyed electrodes, which can be pointed, are increasingly in use. A ew of the alloyed electrodes are used for AC welding. Electrodes with thoria (EWTh-1 or EWTh-2) additions can split when used with AC at high current levels and therefore are usually avoided. Since relatively high heat is developed at the electrode with AC, pointed electrodes can melt easily. The size =) & of the hemisphere for alloyed electrodes should not exceed the at electrode diameter as it may detach. 24mm Sharpened ‘Balled’ The retention of a smaller ball is Diamoter Lit Tungsten promoted through the selection of a larger diameter electrode and Figure 2.10: Tungsten Preparation for Aluminum Welding pointing it. See Figure 2.10. The (Balled Tungsten) result is a smaller ball can be formed. 38') LEARNING CENTRE. Gas tungsten arc welding power sources are available with ‘AC Balance’ control enabling the operator to adjust the heat released at the electrode during the electrode positive half of the cycle. This adjustment allows the use of pcinted alloy tungsten electrodes without forming a “balled” end. Figure 2.10 describes the method of preparing a tungsten for welding aluminium and other metals which form a high temperature oxide, when using a conventional transformerirectifier power supply. Inverter based power supplies are available which allow the use of a sharpened alloyed tungsten without a balled end. See Figure 2.11 for details of blunted end geometry used with inverters. Transistorized switching to create alternating current from direct current provides. control over AC frequency. As the welding current frequency rises above 60 cycles per second, the arc begins to focus on the end of the electrode increasing penetration and control of the arc. Alloyed tungsten electrodes EWCe-2 and EWLa-1 are most commonly recommended. (See Module 5 for details of power supply operation.) Gas tungsten arc welding of steels and nickel alloys is performed using direct current, electrode negative polarity. The tip of the electrode is ground to the shape of a cone, with a smaller vertex angle for thin workpieces and larger vertex angle for thicker workpieces, and Figure 2.11 shows the recommended vertex angles for manual welding. The vertex angle can have a significant effect on the weld bead shape at high currents as shown in Figure 2.12, and therefore for mechanized applications involving high currents, close attention should be paid to the vertex angle for consistent results. The ground, tapered ends of tungsten electrodes can become contaminated with embedded metal particles if grinding stones or disks have been used for other purposes. To prevent this from occurring, grinders should be designated "Tungsten Electrodes Only”. Figure 2.13 shows the recommended technique for grinding tungsten electrodes 4 Parad End Blunted After Grinding to Reduce FT mes the Possibiliy of Tungsten Inclusion 114 for Heavier 7 J Materials (56°) we t 6 Vertex Angle Figure 2.11: Recommended Tungsten Electrode Tip Geometry for Manual Welding 39') LEARNING CENTRE 200 Amps Wele With Penetration an aes. °) 100 Amps L © e 120 Figure 2.12: Effect of Tungsten Electrode Vertex Angle (8) on Weld Width and Penetration b)grinding marks a) hold lightly should be alonglength_—_c) blunt end slightly against wheel _of tungsten to complete preparation ) WRONG ) WRONG Figure 2.13: Preparing a tungsten by grinding. 40') LEARNING CENTRE Shielding Gases Shielding gases used for GTA welding are completely inert since the presence of oxygen or carbon dioxide will oxidize the tungsten elestrode and limit its life. Inert gases commonly used are argon, helium and argon-helium mixtures at 99.9% purity or above. Gases do not normally conduct electricity and must be forced to do so. This is called “ionizing”. Each pure gas requires a different amount of energy to cause it to become conductive, called “ionization Potential’, measured in electron volts. The ionization potential of some pure gases are Table 2.3: Electron Voltages Argon | _15.8eV_ Hydrogen 13.6 eV ‘Helium 24.9 eV Nitrogen 14.5 eV Oxygen 136eV | Argon is normally the shielding gas of choice because of its: + smoother and quieter arc; + lower arc voltage for a given current and arc length, making it easier to weld thin materials without burn-through; + greater cleaning action in welding aluminum and magnesium using alternating current; + easier arc starting; + lower flow rates for good shielding and better resistance to wind drafts; + lower cost and greater availability Helium, for the same arc length, 35 requires greater voltage than | argon leading to higher heat Helium inputs as demonstrated in Figure 2 2.14. Pure helium is therefore 2 used advantageously for shielding Are Voltage, Argon when welding materials with high v 16 Ne thermal conductivity, for example 10 copper or thick aluminum. Helium is however lighter than air, and not used alone when welding oe other materials. More often, it is added in varying amounts to Are Caren & argon to achieve a combination of Figure 2.14: Effect of Shielding Ges advantages gases of both. ‘on Gas Tungsten Arc Voltage aLEARNING CENTRE Argon-hydrogen mixtures are also used but mainly for stainless steels, nickel-copper, and nickel base alloys. These alloys are not prone to hydrogen cracking, however, the amount of hydrogen in the mixture needs to be controlled to avoid porosity. The optimum amount of hydrogen depends on the workpiece thickness and the joint type, and typically varies from 0.5 to 5%. Argon-hydrogen mixtures cannot be used for welding carbon steels, Filler Metals Filler metals when required are procured to the same specifications as those for gas metal arc welding consumables. For GTAW, these can be in the form of continuous wire to be fed automatically, or individual rods for manual feeding into the weld pool. 2.4 Applications and Limitations ‘Two main advantages of the GTAW process are: + high quality weld deposit which for carbon and low alloy steels is also low in hydrogen content; + ittcan be used to weld virtually all weldable metals and alloys though it is not used extensively for joining cast or wrought iron. The weld produced is smooth and attractive, recuiting virtually no post weld cleaning such as removal of slag. Autogenous welds as well as welds with filler metal addition can be made in all welding positions, using manual, semi-automatic and completely mechanized modes of application. Travel speeds for automatic, autogenous applications can be very high. Also, heat input and filler material additions can be independently and reliably controlled GTAW is the process of choice for welding all thin materials when weld quality requirements are demanding. As a result, it is used extensively in the production of aircraft and space vehicles. In the latter, applications include the shell structure, tanks, and tubing in rocket engines. ‘Two of the common applications of GTAW are orbital welding of small diameter tubes and pipes, and tube to tube sheet welds. In the former case, the entire process is automated and the welding head traverses circumferential butt joints between two fixed pipes. The welding position, 5G, continuously changes from fiat to overhead (1G to 4G), and vertical (36) welding is done in both downwards and upwards progression (3 O'clock and 9 O'clock positions, ively) . The weld can be thought of as a multi-layer but single pass weld since after 1g the arc in the root, there should be no stops until the joint is completely filled. For tube to tube sheet joints, the process is again automated, and the main differences with respect to pipe butt joints are in the different joint design and a constant welding position. Also, these automated applications generally use pulsed dc current that can be pre-programmed to change in a prescribed fashion as the welding arc moves along the circumference and the welding position changes continuously. 42’) LEARNING CENTRE Fig 2.15: Orbital GTAW The main disadvantages of the GTAW process are the special equipment needed for arc ignition and its low deposition rate in manual applications. As a result, it is seldom used to weld materials more than 10 mm thick. However, itis used to deposit root passes for circumferential welds in thick pipes because of control over underbead profile and weld soundness. Subsequent passes may then be deposited by other welding processes. When the GTAW process is automated, itis highly controllable and automated filler metal feed tremendously increases the deposition rate. Further increase in deposition rate may be achieved by preheating the filler metal wire (by an electric current) before it is fed into the weld pool. This variation of the process is called hot-wire GTAW, where deposition rates can exceed 5 kg/hr. GTAW is also used extensively for repair and maintenance of components made from tool and die steels, aluminum and magnesium alloys, or other critical components. 25 Joint Design The joint design for GTAW depends on several factors including the base material to be welded and its thickness, absence or addition of filer metal, weld penetration requirements, etc., and therefore optimum joint designs snould be confirmed by performing procedure qualification tests, 43"> LEARNING CENTRE 2.6 Arc Ignition (Starting the Arc) Initiating an arc across a small gap without the tungsten electrode touching the workpiece requires a high voltage, of the order of 300 V, which can be a safety hazard. Therefore, three other methods have been developed to help initiate the arc. These are: (i) Touch start: In this method, the torch is lowered to allow a momentary contact between the electrode and the workpiece which sends a surge of current and heats the electrode. Next, when the electrode is quickly pulled back and withdrawn, an arc is established as shown in Figure 2.16. Though the method is simple, there is a possibility of the electrode sticking to the workpiece, and causing electrode and weld zone contamination. (ii) High Frequency Start : Suitable for both ac and de power sources, this approach adds a high frequency generator in the circuit which superimposes a high voltage ac output at radio frequency on top of the normal power source output shown in Figure 2.17. This high voltage enables the arc to be initiated but because of its nature, is not hazardous to the welder. However, the generator output can interfere with radio, electronic and computer equipment, and therefore such equipment should be used with due care following the manufacturers recommendations. High Surge of Current High Temperature ~\\ Figure 2.16: Touch Start Electrode Method for Arc Ignition 44) LEARNING CENTRE Electronic Touch Starting : This approach involves passing a low current through the electrode in contact with the workpiece. This low current preheats the electrode so that when itis lifted, an electronic control signal sends a surge of current for arc ignition. Within a fraction of a second the current is returned to a value set for welding. The short current surge is relatively low since the electrode tip is already preheated. While it eliminates the problem of tungsten electrode and weld zone contamination, the approach is suitable for de welding only. 2.7 Welder Technique In manual application of the GTAW process, the welder technique is critical in obtaining sound, clean and porosity free welds. The main features of correct welder technique for manul GTA welding are: High Frequency Generator Work Proce 45") LEARNING CENTRE Once the are has been initiated, develop the weld pool by holding the electrode vertical and applying a small circular or side to side motion. This should be possible within 3 to 5 seconds. If it takes longer, the arc is too cold and current needs to be increased, Similarly, ifit takes less than 3 seconds, the arc is too hot and current needs to be decreased. To start welding, tit back the torch slightly so that a travel angle of 5 to 15 degrees is maintained (Figure 2.18(a)). Excessive angle can cause air entrainment which could lead to porosity or other problems. A forehand/push technique is followed so that the electrode points in the direction of electrode travel. (See Section 1.3 for travel angle definition.) Filler rod, if used, is added by rapidly dabbing it in and out of the leading edge of the weld pool (Figure 2.18(b)) often rocking the torch towards the back of the puddle in time with filler metal additions, ensuring all the time that end of the rod always stays within the gas shield so that it does not oxidize, especially in the case of stainless steels, nickel or titanium alloys. S10 15° Tit Torch Back Slightly ‘Add Filer muetiw ean Travel = Ld @) () Figure 2.18: Manual GTAW Technique To maintain adequate gas shielding, extension of the electrode beyond the gas cup should be minimized. Recommended vaues are 3 to 5 mm for thick materials and 8 to 10 mm for thin materials. A short arc length should be maintained and this is helped by keeping the standoff distance to less than the diameter of the gas cup (Figure 2.19). 46') LEARNING CENTRE. Minimize Extension of Electrode Beyond the Gas Cup = ‘Standoff Distance Should Use a Short aro ————> Not Exceed Diameter of Gas Cup “ft Figure 2.19: Electrode Extension and Standoff Distance to Maintain Proper Gas Shielding When welding is to be stopped, the currentis slowly decreased while the filler metal is stil added. Otherwise, there will be an unfilled crater, and in susceptible materials like some aluminum alloys, crater cracking can result. 2.8 Weld Quality ‘As mentioned earlier, GTAW generally provides a high quality deposit. Nonetheless, weld ‘metal flaws do occur in GTA welds. Some of the common ones encountered and their likely causes are’ Porosity : Is usually caused by inadequate gas shielding, contaminated workpieces or contaminated filer material. Inadequate gas shielding may be due to inadequate gas delivery due to clogging, leaking in the gas system, or too high (causing turbulence and mixing with air) or due to wind and drafts, ‘Tungsten inclusions : Particles of tungsten that are introduced into the weld metal from the tungsten electrode. Common causes of this are: the tungsten electrode touching the weld pool, or the filer metal, electrode size and type that is incompatible with the current level, and ‘excessive extension of the electrode beyond the collet leading to overheating of the electrode. Solidification Cracking: These cracks commonly form along the centerline of the weld bead, especially in the craters. To minimize its insidence, it should be ensured that the correct filer metal is used, and that, in manual welding, it is added uniformly and not intermittently. Proper crater filing techniques and use of run-on, run-off tabs help minimizing this flaw. 47> LEARNING CENTRE Electrode contamination : This may also be caused by inadequate gas shielding, excessive electrode extension or excessive torch angle. Dirty weld bead : Dirty weld beads are invariaby caused by contamination. Sources of contamination can be (inadequate) gas shielding, air and water leaks in the gas system and torch, inadequately cleaned workpiece or filler material, and electrode contamination. 4834 32 33 3.4 35 3.6 ) LEARNING CENTRE Chapter 3 SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING Principles of Operation Power Sources ...... Types of Electrodes fe Classification of Electrodes... ‘ Applications and Limitations of the SVAW Process Shielded Metal Arc Welding of Carben and Low Alloy Steels 49 - 50 51 55 56 59 61') LEARNING CENTRE. 3. SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) or manually operated metal arc welding with covered electrodes is still a commonly used welding metod. It allows the greatest amount of flexibility in terms of the range of materials and thicknesses that can be joined in all welding positions. However, there are other arc welding processes that provide higher deposition rate, and for large thicknesses, the shield metal arc process becomes uneconomical. The knowledge of joint design, arc action, heat control and metal reaction gained from shielded metal arc welding has been of great value in developing all other variations of the arc welding process. 3.1 Principles of Operation In shielded metal arc welding, an arc is established between the end of a covered metal electrode and the workpiece to be welded. The neat of the arc melts the surfaces of the joint as well as the metal electrode. The filler metal is carried across the arc into the weld joint and mixes with the molten base metal. As the arc is moved at a suitable travel speed along the joint, the progressive melting of the metal electrode and the base metal provides a moving pool of molten metal which cools and solidifies behind the arc (Figure 3.1). Electrode Coating Electrode Wire Are Protective Gas From Molten Metal Electrode Coating Slag Metal Droplets Soliditied weld Metal Base Metal Figure 3.1: Schematic Sketch of the Shielded Metal Arc Process 50LEARNING CENTRE ‘The electrical circuit for shielded metal arc welding is relatively simple and is shown in Figure 3.2. It comprises a power source with electrical leads connected to the workpiece and the electrode holder. The arc characteristics, weld bead shape and weld metal soundness and properties depend on the selection of the type of power source, electrode, joint design, as well as welding parameters and welder skill Electrode Holder Electrode Lead Electrode Base Metal Jamey PS Work Lead Figure 3.2: Electrical Circuit for SMAW 3.2 Power Sources The power source used for SMAW is a constant current type, ie., it has a drooping volt- ampere curve (see Figure 1.4). With such power sources, the welder sets the required current at the power source and the voltage is controlled by the arc length that the welder maintains during welding. The drooping power source is preferred because there is @ small but continual variation in the arc length due to the manual nature of the welding process. This is reflected in a continual change in the arc voltage but due to the drooping characteristics of the volt- ampere curve, the accompanying changes in the arc current, and therefore the electrode melt off and deposition rates are small. Figure 3.3 shows typical SMAW power sources. 51LEARNING CENTRE Different power sources however may have different slope (or incline) for the volt-ampere curve, and some machines are designed to enable some adjustment of the slope. Figure 3.4 shows that when the volt- ampere curve is flatter, there is a greater change in current for @ given change in voltage. The adjustment of the slope of the volt-ampere curve enables the welder to maintain better control of the weld pool and penetration in certain situations such as out of position welding (vertical or overhead positions) or depositing a root pass in a pipe over a varying gap. For ‘example, by adjusting the volt- ampere curve to be flatter; an intentional increase in the arc length caused by a welder pulling the electrode away increases the arc voltage and decreases the current sufficiently to reduce penetration or risk of burn-through. Conversely, electrode sticking is also prevented when the rod is in near contact with the base material, the arc length and therefore voltage are reduced, and the current increases sufficiently to increase the burn off rate to prevent sticking. With a pure drooping (or vertical) volt-ampere curve, there would be no change in the current due to change in voltage or arc length. The welder would have no control over the electrode burn-off rate in this case. Figure 3.3: Typical SMAW Power Sources 52') LEARNING CENTRE: 100 FF Maximum OCV Voltage 125A, |_Minimum Ocy 2rVv J 50 32 21 } Ate a Voltage Current, A” 200 Figure 3.4: Change in Current Due to Change in Voltage in a Constant Current Power Source Power sources are available to provide direct current (DC), alternating current (AC), or both. Transformer or an alternator type of source is used for AC welding, and transformer-rectifier or motor generator type for DC welding. Some power sources (single phase transformer-reetifier or alternator rectifier type) can be used for AC and DC welding. Inverters are becoming popular due to their portability and smooth operating characteristics. Figure 3.5 shows a typical inverter power supply. 53LEARNING CENTRE Figure 3.5: Portable Inverter Type Constant Current Power Source In addition to the type of power sources selectec, adequate size insulated electrode holders must be used together with suitable size cables to prevent excessive power loss during welding. A common type of electrode holder is shown in Figure 3.6, and recommended cable sizes are shown in Table 3.1. i Hinge Pin 7, Return Spring” j L cebte L sa ca Handle Electrode Figure 3.6: Example of an Electrode Holder 54") LEARNING CENTRE Table 3.1 : Recommended cable sizes for SMAW (from The Procedure Handbook of Arc ‘Welding published by The Lincoln Electric Company) Machine Duly ‘Copper cable ties Tar combined lengine (in meters) of electrode and Capacity in | cycle, % ‘gound cable Amperes Upiots [15-30 | 30-45 45-60 0-75 100 [20 6 ieee 180 20 ES #4 8 a 480 30 ra #4 5 #1 2007 50 ra 3 2 #0 200. 602. #2 2 #0 225) 20.) #3 #10. 250 30 #3. #3 #110 300) 60 | #10 #10. Hi 3/0 “400 60 #200 #210 #210 #410 500, 60 #200 #210, #3/0 #410, [600 60 300 #310. #310 = ogee jaeeseu! 300 #30. #410 = * Use double strand of #210."* Use double strand of #3/0, 3.3 Types of Electrodes Electrodes for shielded metal arc welding generally comprise a coated, solid electrode wire (core) of limited length. Occasionally, the solid electrode can be replaced by a metallic sheath containing metal powders with the objective of adding specific alloying elements to the weld metal. The covering on the electrodes can be applied either by an extrusion process or by dipping, though extrusion is far more common. The covering itself contains several ingredients depending on the type of electrode. The function of these ingredients is generally one of the following: 55") LEARNING CENTRE + provide a gas shield to prevent contaminatior of the weld metal by atmospheric gases; + provide a slag cover to protect the hot weld metal from atmospheric contamination; and controlling the bead shape; + scavenge some of the impurities in the weld metal; + stabilize the arc by promoting electrical conduction across the arc; this is especially important for AC welding where the arc effectively goes out and needs to be reestablished after each current reversal; + provide a means to add alloying elements to enhance mechanical/corrosion properties, and iron powder to increase deposition rate. Each electrode classification produces different amounts of gases and slag to shield the weld metal. Electrodes that rely on slag to protect the metal can carry higher current and provide a higher deposition rate. Conversely, electrodes producing a smaller amount of slag and relying on the gas shield are stable to operate at lower currents and therefore are more suitable for out of position welding. Alll electrodes can be used with direct current though some are designed for use with AC also. Use of AC reduces arc blow and voltage drop in welding cables. Direct current (OC) power has certain advantages: > easier arc initiation > better arc stability > good wetting action > ability to maintain a short arc Direct current is especially useful for applications requiring small diameter electrodes and low currents, e.g., out of position welding, welding o thin materials, etc. When direct current is used for SMAW, DCEP polarity provides deeper penetration and DCEN polarity provides a higher electrode melting rate. 34 Classification of Electrodes Shielded metal arc welding electrodes are available for welding of carbon and low alloy steels, stainless steels, cast irons, and aluminum, copper and nickel and their alloys. However, electrodes for welding carbon and low alloy steels and for stainless steels are of greatest commercial significance, and systems for their classification as described in CSA Standard W48 are summarized here. For more details, see Module 6 - Electrodes and Consumables of the MLS Series. 56') LEARNING CENTRE Carbon and low alloy stee! electrodes The electrode designation comprises the letter E (for electrode) followed by 4 or more digits, e.g., E4918 for metric designation (E7018 is used for imperial). The first two digits (metric) after E indicate the minimum tensile strength of the weld metal in increments of 10 MPa when used to make a welded joint in a prescribec manner. The first two digits detail tensile in ksi imperial designations. In complete penetration groove welds, the minimum tensile strength of the weld metal should normally be equal to, or slightly greater than the minimum specified tensile strength of the steel being welded. This is not essential for partial penetration groove welds or fillet welds as long as weld sizes have been determined in light of the service loads in accordance with CSA Standard WS9 or other equivalent standards. The third digit indicates the welding position for which the electrode is designed with 1 meaning suitable for all welding positions (Fat, horizontal, vertical and overhead), 2 suitable for horizontal fillet and flat positions only and 4 meaning suitable for vertical, downwards progression only. The fourth digit (metric) indicates the usability characteristics of the electrodes (type of coating, welding current type, etc.). Thus, 0 and 1 at the fifth digit position indicate cellulosic covering, 2 and 3 indicate covering containing rutile, 8 indicates low hydrogen, iron powder containing covering, etc. The first five digits may be followed by additional letters and digits which are usualy indicators of weld metal toughness or alloy content. Further details about digits in the fourth position, suitable current type and polarity for each, etc. can be found in CSA Standard W48 or from electrode manufacturers. | 49 18 1 eee designator for improved Arc an notch toughness electrode Electrode covering type Minimum tensile strength of and type of current deposited weld metal in megapascals (Mpa) Welding positions of useat The usability character summarized as follows: of some of the more commonly used electrode types can be EXx10 high cellulose, sodium compounds for arc stability, dc electrode positive polarity; deeply penetrating aro; suitable for all welding positions; may be used for welding from one side with adequate back bead profile; 5 mm or smaller diameter electrodes used for all position welding; 87’) LEARNING CENTRE EXXtt high cellulose, potassium compounds for arc stability, AC or DC electrode positive polarity; otherwise similar to EXX10 electrodes; Exxt2: high titania with sodium compounds, ac or de electrode negative polarity; medium penetrating, quiet arc; most often used for single pass, high speed, high current, horizontal fillet welds; EXX13: high titania with potassium compounds, similar to EXX12 type; used for sheet metal work for vertical down welding; provides better radiographic quality in multipass welds than EXX12 electrodes; EXx14: high titania and iron powder covering; AC or DC either polarity; similar to EXX12 or 13 but with iron powder providing a higher deposition rate; EXX15 basic covering with sodium compounds; de electrode positive polarity; limestone and other basic ingredients in the covering provide weld metal with good toughness and low hydrogen content; also suitable for welding high sulfur steels; usually 4 mm or smaller diameters are used for all position welding; EXx16: basic covering with potassium compounds; ac or de electrode positive polarity; otherwise similar to EXX15; EXx18: basic, iron powder covering; similar to EXX15 or 16 but with iron powder in the covering thus providing higher deposition rates; most structural steels are welded with EXX18 type of electrodes; Exx22, iron oxide covering; ac or de either polarity; used for single pass, high speed, high current flat and horizontal lap and fillet welds in sheet metal; EXX24: titania, high iron powder covering; AC or DC either polarity; similar to EXX14 electrodes but restricted to welding in flat and horizontal positions; used mostly for fillet welds; EXx28: basic, high iron powder covering; AC or de electrode positive polarity; similar to EXX18 but with higher iron powder content; suitable for welding horizontal fillets and fiat position welds only; Exxas: basic, iron powder covering; AC or de either polarity; also similar to EXX18 but designed for welding in the vertical position with downwards progression. 58') LEARNING CENTRE Stainless Steel Electrodes Requirements for covered electrodes for welding stainless steels are included in CSA Standard W48. These electrodes are classified based on the chemical composition of the Undiluted weld metal, the welding position and the type of welding current for which the electrode is designed. A typical designation can be represented as EXXXxx-XX where E represents electrode, and the next three digits and any letters immediately thereafter (e.g., 309L, 310M) indicate the weld metal composition. The last two digits are usually 15, 16, 17 or 26 where digit 1 indicates suitability for zll position welding for electrode diameters up to 4 mm. Conversely, digit 2 indicates suitability for flat and horizontal positions only. The number 5 indicates that the covering contains calcium carbonate (limestone) and sodium silicate, and that the electrode is suitable for welding using de electrode positive polarity. The letter 6 indicates the presence of titania and potassium silicate in addition to the calcium carbonate. The presence of potassium compounds makes the electrode suitable for AC welding. The 7 signifies an acid flux with a significant amount of silica which makes the slag more fluid positions of usability The EXXXxx-15 electrodes provide a more penetrating arc, and a convex and coarsely rippled bead. These electrodes are preferred for out of position welding since the slag solidifies quickly. The EXXXxx-16 electrodes provide a smoother are, less spatter, and a finely rippled bead. These electrodes are less popular for out of position work because the slag is quite fluid. For more details, see Module 6 - “Electrodes and Consumables’ of the MLS series. Handling and Storage of Electrodes ‘The electrodes should be handled with care to ensure that the electrode covering does not chip off. Unopened boxes should be stored at 30C + 10°C with relative humidity being less than 50%. Cellulosic electrodes (EXX10, EXX11) are manufactured with a certain amount of moisture in the coating (3%-7%). The performance of these electrodes could be adversely affected if they are exposed to excessive amnounts of moisture or have been dried out in an electrode oven 59') LEARNING CENTRE Electrodes with basic (low hydrogen) coatings (containing calcium carbonate) are prone to moisture absorption from the atmosphere and therefore should be packaged in hermetically sealed containers. Once a box is opened, the electrodes should be removed from their packaging and stored in a holding oven at a terrperature of about 120°C. Also, if the basic electrodes for welding carbon and low alloy steel have been exposed at ambient temperature for 4 hours or more, or if their packaging has bezn damaged, they are to be rebaked at a temperature (370° to 430°C) and for a time (1 te 2 hours) recommended by the electrode manufacturer. Cellulosic electrodes however should not be placed in holding ovens or rebaked. 35 Applications and Limitations of the SMAW Process The shielded metal arc welding process can be used to weld most metals and alloys of engineering significance. It has been extensively used to weld all types of steels (carbon and low alloy steels, stainless steels, etc.) in the fabrication of pressure vessels, oil and natural gas pipelines, field storage tanks, bridges, buildings, ships and offshore structures, railway cars, trucks and automobiles, nuclear power stations, and numerous other miscellaneous products including those made from cast iron. Amongst the non-ferrous alloys, the shielded metal arc welding process is used for welding nickel and nickel-based alloys and to some extent copper alloys, such as bronzes. Though electrodes are available, it is not popular for welding aluminum alloys. The process is also used for hardsurfacing various components exposed to wear, impact, corrosion and heat. The shielded metal arc welding process is usualy the most appropriate for repair and maintenance welding since each job is usually ¢ one-time-only situation, the amount of welding required is relatively small and in-situ locations are most suitable for the shielded metal arc process only. The process is also frequently the only one in shops where welding constitutes only a small portion of the complete manufacturing process. The shielded metal arc welding process is also generally the easiest to use in the field due to the simplicity of the equipment and its tolerance to the normal outdeor environment. Nonetheless, itis advisable to install protective enclosures when welding in the field in order to get protection from rai wind, etc The advantages of the shielded metal arc welding process thus include its applications to a variety of materials, and the ability to weld in all positions (vertical and overhead as well as flat and horizontal) and at most locations. As well the equipment required is easily portable and relatively inexpensive. The main limitation of the SMAW process is the necessity of frequent breaks as each electrode is consumed to about 50 mm of its original length and a new one Used to re-initiate the welding operation. This frequent change of electrode along with the need to chip off the slag means that duty cycle {percentage of time that an arc is maintained for the purposes of welding) is less than 20% and the deposition rate is low. Also, the unusable electrode stubs add to waste and cos! of the filler material. 60LEARNING CENTRE 3.6 Shielded Metal Arc Welding of Carbon and Low Alloy Steels Joint Design For base metal thickness up to about 6 mm, a square groove with suitable root opening may be employed for a complete penetration groove weld provided that welding is performed from both sides and in the flat position. At the low end, a skilled welder can weld base metal as thin as 1.6 mm. For larger thicknesses, the base metal edges must be beveled, and in very thick sections, J- and U-grooves become more economical by reducing the weld metal volume required. The root gap for groove welds is typically equal to the electrode diameter in order to achieve complete penetration and the groove angle should be large enough to achieve side wall fusion and minimize slag entrapment. In assembling a joint for welding, the fit-up should be good enough to maintain the groove geometry within acceptable tolerances. Thus, too ‘small a root gap or misalignment between the two members to be joined can locally lead to incomplete joint penetration. Fit-up tolerances and workmanship and some prequalified joint geometries given in CSA Standard W 59 “Velded Steel Construction” are shown in Table 3.2 and Figure 3.7, respectively. Table 3.2: Fit-up and Workmanship Tolerances for SMAW Groove Welds ~ ~ ~~ | Root Not Gouged Root Gouged 4. Root Face of Joint 2mm - Not limited | [ 2. Root Opening of Joints: +2mm - Without Steel Backing | +2 mm -3mm | With Steel Backing +6mm,-2mm Not applicable 3. Groove Angle of Joint [+ 10°, -5° ~ 61’) LEARNING CENTRE Backing Strip T <—— Backing Strip \ | 6 | Postions 20] 12 | Foon ao] 10 as | 6 |evo el s |evo Figure 3.7 - Typical Prequalified Complete Joint Penetration Groove Welds for the Shielded Metal Arc Welding Process (SMAW) 62) LEARNING CENTRE Welding Positions Though it is always preferable to perform walding in the fiat position since less welder skill is required and higher deposition rates are possible, it is sometimes necessary to perform welding in vertical or overhead positions. In such situations, the SMAW process has the flexibility to be used for out of position welding since the force of the arc will propel the molten metal in a spray of globules in any direction required. However, a more skilled welder is generally required and the joint design may be somewhat different from that for welding in the flat position. Selection of Electrode Diameter and Current The classification and size of electrode, and the welding current for a given application are chosen in light of the thickness of the material to be welded, groove geometry and welding position. Generally, larger diameter electrodes are used for welding thick materials and in the flat position so that higher deposition rates can be achieved. Smaller diameter electrodes are generally needed for welding the root passes in V-grooves and for out of position welds so that the welder can have better control of the weld pool and the bead shape. For prequalified joints, CSA Standard W 59 "Welded Stee! Construction” limits the maximum electrode size to 4 mm for welding in the vertical position (filet and groove welds), and to 5 mm for groove welds in horizontal and overead positions, and fillet welds in the overhead positions. Larger diameter electrodes are used for welding in the horizontal and flat positions only. Table 3.3 shows typical current ranges for satisfactory electrode burn off and stable arc conditions using steel electrodes of various diameters. However, the complete range of current may not be suitable for all situations. When welding on thinner material, the lower end of the range might be applicable. This would also apply when welding in the vertical or overhead positions. For example, 3.2 mm diameter £4310 electrode, according to Table 3.3 has a usable current range of 75 to 125 A. For joining heavy material in the flat position, it ‘would be logical to use the upper part of the range, 100 to 125 A. But if welding is to be done in the vertical up position, the range might be 90 to 110 A. In practice, an attempt is made to position the work piece such that welding is performed in the flat position, where ever practicable, so as to permit the use of larger diameter electrodes and higher currents, thus providing a higher deposition rate. 63') LEARNING CENTRE 'ypical Current Ranges in Amperes for Electrodes of Different Diameters (from CSA Standard W48) Electrode Eaxoo 7 Diameter, 4x10 e4x22 | E4xo7 | cagtd | Mm E4xtt 16 : T = ~ >] | 20 : | |e : : 25 45-85 ee : 90-135 32 75-125 | 410-160 | 125-185 110-160 40 | 110-170 | 140-190 | 160-240 150-210 50 185-235 | 165-265 200-410 | 230-330 220-300 60 190-290 | 225-360 360-520 | 270-380 | 295-375, 80 275-425 | 300-500 | 3 =| 375-475 _| 390 - 500 Electrode al 1 diameter, E4916 £4918 E4948 25 70-720 | 80-710 | 710-760" all 32 10-150 | 118-765 | 140-190 | s0-140 40 140-220 | 190-220 180-250 | 150-220 | 50 200-280 220-360 | 260-335 | 210-270 60 270-350 285-360 | 300-300 : ao 375-475 375470 | 400-525" zl * These values do not apply to the E4928 classification Deposition Rate Deposition rate for any arc welding process is the amount of weld metal deposited in a given period of time. For the shielded metal arc welding process, it equals the amount of electrodes used up in a given period of time less stub losses, and losses due to spatter and formation of slag. The melting rate of electrodes will depend on the current, size of electrode and type of coating. Some electrodes contain iron powder in the flux which increases the deposition rate for a given current. Arc Voltage has little effect on the melting rate as seen in Figure 3.8, but the melting rate increases approximately in proportion to the current. 64" LEARNING CENTRE ‘eran ois Rae voto tena tig Rae sao b 4 1.00 4 200 Amperes Electrode 08 ee “| Metting Rate yg |_ J GramsiSee oa 4 02 : a fem aem 2 oye 0 aac mero: Votage ee o 40 80 120 160 200 240 260 Current Figure 3.8: Effect of Current and Voltage on Electrode Melting Rate ‘The deposition rates achieved with various electrodes for joining weldable structural and pressure vessel steels are shown in Figure 3.9. DDeposton Ra ‘th xt. os a a We'sng Curent AC (amp) Figure 3.9: Deposition Rates for Various Mild-Steel Electrodes 65') LEARNING CENTRE Welder Technique ‘Awelder has control over three aspects of the welding technique that influence weld quality and incidence of flaws such as arc strikes, undercut, porosity, slag inclusions, etc. These are: proper striking of the arc, and maintaining the correct work and travel angles (see Section 1.3, for definitions). Arc may be initially struck either by tapping the electrode on the workpiece along the joint or scratching the electrode along the workpiece (Figure 3.10) and quickly withdrawing it to be about 3 mm from the work surface. Once an arc is struck, the electrode should be held at the starting point of the weld until the weld pool begins to form and is about twice the diameter of the electrode. Then the electrode is moved along the joint at a speed that keeps the weld pool at a uniform size. Scratching Tapping EE —cccmin $F — crete fare \ Fare -. Se _ Plate - Figure 3.10: Stiking an Arc 66’) LEARNING CENTRE The travel angle for shielded metal arc welding is typically 5 to 10 degrees dragging though for electrodes with heavy iron coatings, it can be in the 10 to 30 degree range. Except for vertical up welding, the electrode should point in a direction opposite to the welding as seen in Figure 3.11 (drag or backhand technique); in the vertical up position, the electrode points in the direction of welding as shown in Figure 3.12 (push or forehand technique). i i Travel Angle 5° - 10° Electrode Travel => Figure 3.11: Electrode Travel Angle (backhand technique) 67') LEARNING CENTRE Electrode Figure 3.12: Electrode Travel Angle in Vertical Up Welding (forehand technique) The work angle is typically 90 degrees for groove welds and 35 to 55 degrees for fillet welds depending on the welding position (see Figure 3.13). TS Fillet Wold Groove Weld Figure 3.13: Work Angle in Groove and Fillet Welds in the Overhead Position 68